All questions of Pastoralists in the Modern World (Old NCERT Syllabus) for Class 9 Exam

In earlier days humans were surviving on hunting and gathering, but as time passes they found it difficult.So, they adopted domestication of different animals based on different geographical, vegetation and climatic conditions. This is called pastoralism. It is either for commercial purpose or nomadic herding. However this activity is performed everywhere like plains, plateaus, mountains and deserts. Especially the nomadic herders wander in many places.So, the answer is D.

True

Origin of Gujjar Cattle herders:
The Gujjar cattle herders are originally from the state of Rajasthan in India.
Explanation:
The Gujjar community is primarily found in the state of Rajasthan, which is located in the western part of India. They have a strong presence in the rural areas of Rajasthan, where they have been traditionally involved in cattle rearing and herding.
Key Points:
- The Gujjar community is known for their expertise in cattle herding and dairy farming.
- They have a long history of migrating from one place to another in search of grazing lands for their cattle.
- Over the years, some Gujjar families have also settled in other states like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and parts of North India.
- In Jammu and Kashmir, the Gujjar community is mainly concentrated in the hilly areas and is involved in nomadic pastoralism.
- In Himachal Pradesh, they are found in the districts of Chamba and Kangra, where they continue their traditional occupation of cattle herding.
Overall, the Gujjar cattle herders have their roots in Rajasthan but can be found in other states as well due to their migratory lifestyle.

Answer:
Pastoralists were found in the following regions:
1. Plateaus:
- Plateaus are elevated flat areas of land.
- Pastoralists were found in plateaus as they provided ample grazing areas for their livestock.
2. Plains:
- Plains are flat or gently rolling areas of land.
- Pastoralists preferred plains for grazing their livestock as they offered vast open spaces.
3. Deserts:
- Deserts are arid regions with little or no vegetation.
- Some pastoral communities adapted to desert conditions and practiced nomadic pastoralism in these areas, where they moved their livestock in search of grazing and water.
4. All the above:
- Pastoralists were found in plateaus, plains, and deserts.
- They adapted their lifestyles and practices according to the geographical conditions of these regions.
In conclusion, pastoralists were found in plateaus, plains, and deserts. They utilized these different types of landscapes for grazing their livestock and sustaining their way of life.

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Option a

Introduction to the Maasai People
The Maasai are a prominent ethnic group known primarily for their rich culture and tradition of cattle herding. They predominantly inhabit regions in East Africa, particularly in Kenya and Tanzania.
Cattle Herding Culture
- The Maasai are semi-nomadic pastoralists, meaning they move with their cattle in search of grazing land and water.
- Cattle are not just a source of livelihood; they hold immense cultural significance, symbolizing wealth, status, and identity within Maasai society.
Geographical Distribution
- The Maasai primarily reside in the East African Rift region, which encompasses:
- Southern Kenya
- Northern Tanzania
- Their lifestyle is closely linked to the savannas and grasslands, which provide ideal conditions for cattle grazing.
Social Structure
- Maasai society is organized into clans and age sets, where roles and responsibilities are shared among members.
- Elders play a crucial role in decision-making, while younger men are often involved in herding and protecting cattle.
Challenges Faced
- The Maasai face numerous challenges, including land encroachment, climate change, and modernization, which threaten their traditional way of life.
- Despite these challenges, they strive to maintain their cultural identity while adapting to changing circumstances.
Conclusion
Understanding the Maasai as cattle herders in East Africa provides insight into their unique lifestyle, cultural practices, and the challenges they encounter in a rapidly evolving world. Their deep connection to cattle and the land reflects a rich heritage that is integral to the identity of the Maasai people.

Option b

All the above

Rules established?

The seasonal movement of pastoralists in the hills like gaddis moved from lahaul spiti to other places Cold and snow.

Reserved

Nomadic Pastoralists
Nomadic pastoralists are people who move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living. They have a unique lifestyle and rely on their herds for food, clothing, and other necessities. Here are some key points about nomadic pastoralists:
1. Definition: Nomadic pastoralists are a group of people who practice a form of animal husbandry known as pastoralism. They travel with their herds to find grazing land for their animals.
2. Lifestyle: Nomadic pastoralists lead a mobile lifestyle, constantly moving from one place to another in search of fresh pastures for their livestock. They set up temporary settlements, known as camps, and stay there for a certain period before moving on.
3. Herding Livestock: The primary occupation of nomadic pastoralists is herding livestock, such as sheep, goats, cattle, or camels. They depend on their herds for milk, meat, and other products.
4. Economic Importance: Nomadic pastoralism is an important economic activity in many regions around the world. It provides a source of income for these communities through the sale of livestock and livestock products.
5. Cultural Significance: Nomadic pastoralism has deep cultural roots in many societies. It influences their traditions, social structure, and way of life. These communities have developed unique knowledge and skills related to animal husbandry and mobility.
6. Examples: Nomadic pastoralists can be found in various parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. In India, some examples of nomadic pastoralist communities are Gonds, Dhurwas, and Bhatros.
7. Challenges: Nomadic pastoralists face numerous challenges, such as access to water and grazing land, conflicts with settled communities, and the impact of climate change. These factors can affect their livelihoods and traditional way of life.
In summary, nomadic pastoralists are people who move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living. They have a unique lifestyle and rely on their livestock for sustenance and economic well-being. Their practices have cultural significance and are found in various regions of the world, including India.

Option C is correct..

The tax that had the most severe effect on pastoralists in India was the tax per cattle head.

Explanation:

During the colonial period in India, the British government imposed various taxes on Indian people to generate revenue for their administration. These taxes affected different sections of society in different ways.

The pastoralists, who were mainly involved in rearing cattle, were the worst affected by the tax per cattle head. This tax was levied on every single head of cattle that the pastoralists owned, regardless of whether they were used for milk, transportation, or ploughing. This tax made it difficult for the pastoralists to maintain their livelihood and take care of their cattle.

Impact of tax per cattle head on pastoralists:

1. Economic burden: The tax per cattle head imposed an enormous economic burden on pastoralists. They had to pay the tax every year, which reduced their income and savings.

2. Reduced cattle population: To avoid paying the tax, many pastoralists were forced to sell their cattle, which reduced the cattle population in the country. This had a severe impact on the economy, as cattle were essential for agriculture and transportation.

3. Migration: The tax per cattle head forced many pastoralists to migrate to other regions in search of grazing lands where they could rear their cattle without paying the tax. This led to the displacement of many pastoral communities and disrupted their traditional way of life.

4. Poverty: The tax per cattle head pushed many pastoralists into poverty, as they were unable to earn enough to sustain their livelihoods. They had to rely on loans from moneylenders, which further exacerbated their economic problems.

Conclusion:

Thus, the tax per cattle head had a severe impact on the pastoralists in India, and it was one of the major reasons for the decline of the pastoral economy in the country.

It is not uncommon for people who own or use land for grazing livestock to have to obtain a permit or pass in order to do so. These permits or passes may be required by the government or by the owner of the land. The purpose of requiring a permit or pass is to regulate the use of the land and to ensure that it is being used responsibly and sustainably. In some cases, the permit or pass may also include a fee, which is sometimes referred to as a tax. This fee is typically used to cover the costs of managing and maintaining the land, such as repairs to fences or other infrastructure, or to fund conservation efforts. If a cattle herder wanted to use a particular grazing tract, they would need to obtain the necessary permit or pass and pay any applicable fees in order to do so.

Colonial state regarded grazing land as wasteland:
- During the colonial period, the ruling powers often viewed grazing land as unproductive or unused land.
- This perception led them to consider it as wasteland, not worth utilizing for other purposes.
- The colonial state did not recognize the value of grazing land for supporting livestock and sustaining local economies.
- This perspective often resulted in policies that prioritized other land uses such as agriculture or forestry over grazing.
- Grazing land was often left underutilized or neglected, leading to degradation and loss of its potential productivity.
- The colonial state's disregard for grazing land contributed to the marginalization of pastoral communities who depended on it for their livelihoods.
- The perception of grazing land as wasteland also influenced land tenure systems, with the state often claiming ownership or control over such lands.
Overall, the colonial state's characterization of grazing land as wasteland had significant implications for the management and utilization of these lands, as well as for the communities that relied on them.

Wasteland Rules:
A: Uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals.
- The Wasteland Rules involved the acquisition of uncultivated lands.
- These lands were taken over by the authorities.
B: These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands.
- The select individuals who received the uncultivated lands were offered different concessions.
- They were encouraged and supported in settling and developing these lands.
C: Some of them were made headmen of villages in the newly cleared areas.
- Among the select individuals who received the uncultivated lands, some were appointed as headmen.
- These headmen played a leadership role in the newly cleared areas and governed the villages.
D: All the above.
- The Wasteland Rules encompassed all of the mentioned actions.
- Uncultivated lands were taken over, granted to select individuals, and some of them were made headmen in the newly cleared areas.
Therefore, the answer is D. All of the above.

The crop that is usually harvested after March is the Rabi crop. Here's a detailed explanation:
Rabi Crop:
- Rabi crop refers to the crops that are sown in winter and harvested in spring.
- The sowing of Rabi crops takes place in the months of October and November, and harvesting generally occurs after March.
- These crops are well-suited to the winter season and require cool weather for their growth and development.
- Some examples of Rabi crops include wheat, barley, mustard, gram, peas, etc.
- Rabi crops play a crucial role in the Indian agricultural calendar as they help in meeting the food requirements of the country.
Other Crop Seasons:
- Kharif Crop: Kharif crops are sown during the monsoon season and harvested in the autumn season (around September-October).
- Zaid Crop: Zaid crops are short-duration crops that are sown in the summer season and harvested before the arrival of the monsoon season.
- Stubble: Stubble refers to the residual crop material left in the field after the harvest of the main crop.
Conclusion:
- The crop that is usually harvested after March is the Rabi crop, which includes crops like wheat, barley, mustard, gram, peas, etc.
- This crop is sown in winter and harvested in spring, making it an important component of the Indian agricultural cycle.

• Introduction: Dhangars were a significant pastoral community in India.


• Location: They were primarily found in the state of Maharashtra.


• Role: The Dhangars played a crucial role in animal husbandry and were primarily involved in shepherding and cattle rearing.


• Economic Importance: They were known for their expertise in managing and breeding livestock, particularly sheep and goats.


• Migration: The Dhangars were nomadic in nature and practiced transhumance, which involved seasonal migration with their livestock in search of grazing lands.


• Cultural Significance: The community had its unique cultural practices, traditions, and festivals related to animal husbandry.


• Political Significance: The Dhangars have also been politically active and have demanded recognition and support from the government.


• Community Development: Efforts have been made by various organizations and the government to improve the socio-economic conditions of the Dhangars.

Therefore, the correct answer is B. Maharashtra.

The colonial state wanted to transform all grazing lands into cultivated farms mainly for two reasons: land revenue and agricultural produce required in England.

Land Revenue:
One of the main sources of finance for the colonial state was land revenue. By transforming grazing lands into cultivated farms, the colonial state could increase the area of land that could be taxed. This would result in higher revenue for the state, which could then be used to finance various activities and projects.

Agricultural Produce:
The colonial state had a strong interest in increasing agricultural production in the colonies. This was driven by the need to meet the demand for various agricultural products in England, the colonial power. By transforming grazing lands into cultivated farms, the colonial state aimed to increase the production of crops such as jute, cotton, wheat, and other agricultural produce that were in high demand in England.

By producing more of these crops, the colonial state could ensure a steady supply for the British market, thereby strengthening its economic ties with England. This would also help in reducing dependence on imports from other countries and boost the colonial economy.

Dual Purpose:
The transformation of grazing lands into cultivated farms served a dual purpose for the colonial state. On one hand, it helped generate higher revenue through land taxation, which was crucial for sustaining the colonial administration. On the other hand, it facilitated the production of agricultural goods that were required in England, helping to strengthen the economic ties between the colony and the colonial power.

Overall, the colonial state's decision to transform grazing lands into cultivated farms was driven by both financial considerations (land revenue) and the need to meet the demand for agricultural produce in England.

• Introduction: Gujjar Bakarwals are a community of pastoralists in India.


• Region: They primarily belong to the region of Jammu and Kashmir.


• Way of Life: Gujjar Bakarwals are known for their nomadic lifestyle, where they move along with their herds of cattle, mainly sheep and goats, in search of grazing lands.


• Occupation: They earn their livelihood through dairy farming, selling milk, wool, and other dairy products.


• Cultural Significance: Gujjar Bakarwals have a rich cultural heritage and are known for their unique traditions, music, dance forms, and handicrafts.


• Challenges: The community faces various challenges, including lack of basic amenities, limited access to education and healthcare, and conflicts with settled communities over grazing lands.


• Government Initiatives: The government has taken several initiatives to address the issues faced by Gujjar Bakarwals, including providing education and healthcare facilities in their temporary settlements and implementing welfare schemes for their upliftment.


• Conclusion: The Gujjar Bakarwals, belonging to the region of Jammu and Kashmir, play a significant role in the pastoral economy and cultural diversity of India.

This answer provides a detailed explanation of the Gujjar Bakarwals, their region of belonging, way of life, occupation, cultural significance, challenges faced, and government initiatives for their welfare.

Monsoon and Dry Season

The reason behind the seasonal rhythms of the movement of Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas is primarily due to the monsoon and dry seasons. These communities, which are traditionally pastoralist or semi-nomadic, have developed a unique way of life that revolves around the availability of resources during different seasons.

Monsoon Season:
During the monsoon season, which typically occurs from June to September in India, there is abundant rainfall. This leads to the growth of lush green vegetation, which serves as an important source of food for the livestock of these communities. The availability of water is also significantly higher during this season, as rivers and lakes are filled with rainwater.

Dry Season:
On the other hand, the dry season, which usually lasts from October to May, is characterized by a scarcity of rainfall and a decrease in the availability of water and vegetation. As a result, the pastoral communities need to move their livestock to regions where water and fodder are available. They follow a pattern of migration, moving from one grazing ground to another, in search of suitable resources for their animals.

Importance of Movement:
The movement of these communities during different seasons is essential for several reasons:

1. Access to Water: By moving their livestock to areas with water sources, they ensure that their animals have an adequate supply of water for drinking and bathing.

2. Availability of Fodder: The migration allows them to find areas where there is sufficient vegetation for their livestock to graze on. This ensures that the animals receive proper nutrition and can sustain themselves during the dry season.

3. Preventing Overgrazing: By moving from one grazing ground to another, the communities prevent overgrazing in a particular area. This helps in maintaining the ecological balance and allows vegetation to regenerate.

4. Adaptation to Climate: The seasonal movement is a result of the communities' adaptation to the climatic conditions of the region. They have developed a deep understanding of the environment and have learned to optimize the resources available to them.

Conclusion:
The seasonal rhythms of the movement of Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas are primarily influenced by the monsoon and dry seasons. The communities rely on these seasonal patterns to ensure the well-being of their livestock and to sustain their way of life. By migrating in search of water and fodder, they have developed a sustainable system that allows them to thrive in the challenging climatic conditions of their region.

The continuous movement of pastoral communities has several benefits, including the following:
1. Recovery of the pastures:
- Pastoral communities practice a system of rotational grazing, where they move their livestock from one pasture to another.
- This rotation allows the previously grazed pastures to recover from overuse and replenish their vegetation.
- The movement helps in maintaining the health and productivity of the pastures, ensuring sustainable grazing practices.
2. Prevention of overuse:
- Pastoral communities' nomadic lifestyle prevents the overuse of any particular pasture.
- By moving their livestock to different areas, they distribute the grazing pressure across multiple pastures.
- This prevents the excessive consumption of vegetation in a single location, allowing for the regeneration and preservation of the natural ecosystem.
3. Reduction in the demand for houses:
- Pastoral communities often live in temporary shelters such as tents or huts that can be easily assembled and disassembled.
- Their nomadic lifestyle reduces the need for permanent settlements or houses.
- This reduces the strain on resources required for construction and infrastructure development.
Therefore, the continuous movement of pastoral communities helps in both the recovery of pastures and the prevention of their overuse, making option D the correct answer.

Explanation:
Kafila refers to a group of pastoralists moving together.
- A kafila is a term commonly used in South Asia, particularly in India, to describe a group of people, often nomadic or semi-nomadic, who travel together for various reasons such as trade, migration, or pilgrimage.
- The word "kafila" is derived from the Arabic word "kafilah" which means a caravan or a group of travelers.
- In the context of the given options, a kafila is different from a fort, boat, or ship. It specifically refers to a group of people, usually pastoralists, who move together as a community.
- Pastoralists are people who rely on herding animals for their livelihood, and they often travel from one place to another in search of grazing lands for their animals.
- Traveling in a kafila provides safety, support, and a sense of community for the pastoralists. It also allows them to share resources and knowledge, and protect themselves from external threats.

Answer:
The pastoralists known as Kurumas and Kurubas are found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Here is a detailed explanation of the answer:
1. Kurumas:
- Kurumas are a pastoral community found in the state of Karnataka.
- They are primarily engaged in animal husbandry, particularly sheep rearing.
- Kurumas are known for their expertise in sheep breeding and wool production.
- They migrate seasonally with their livestock in search of grazing pastures.
- The Kurumas follow a traditional way of life and have their own distinct cultural practices.
2. Kurubas:
- Kurubas are another pastoral community found in both Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
- They are known for their traditional occupation of shepherding and cattle rearing.
- Kurubas primarily rear cattle, including cows, buffaloes, and goats.
- Like the Kurumas, the Kurubas also migrate seasonally with their livestock.
- They have their own unique cultural practices and traditions.
Conclusion:
The Kurumas and Kurubas, both pastoralist communities, can be found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. They are engaged in animal husbandry, including sheep rearing, cattle rearing, and other related activities. These communities have their own distinct cultural practices and migrate seasonally with their livestock.

The correct answer is option 'A' - Bedouins, Berbers, Boran, Maasai, Somali, Turkana.

Pastoral communities are groups of people who rely primarily on animal husbandry for their livelihood. These communities traditionally raise livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, and camels, and move with their herds in search of grazing land and water sources. In Africa, several pastoral communities exist, each with their unique cultural practices and ways of life.

Let's take a closer look at each of the pastoral communities mentioned in option 'A':

1. Bedouins: Bedouins are traditionally nomadic Arab tribes found in the deserts of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. They are known for their camel herding and have a rich cultural heritage.

2. Berbers: Berbers are an indigenous ethnic group found primarily in North Africa. They have a long history of pastoralism and are known for their sustainable agricultural practices, such as terrace farming.

3. Boran: The Boran people are a pastoralist community in East Africa, primarily found in Kenya and Ethiopia. They are known for their cattle herding and have a strong cultural identity.

4. Maasai: The Maasai are a well-known pastoralist community in East Africa, primarily living in Kenya and Tanzania. They are known for their distinctive dress, elaborate beadwork, and cattle herding traditions.

5. Somali: The Somali people are a pastoralist community found in the Horn of Africa, primarily in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Kenya. They have a long history of camel herding and trade.

6. Turkana: The Turkana people are a pastoralist community in Kenya. They live in the arid Turkana region and rely on livestock for their livelihood. They are known for their resilience in harsh environments.

These pastoral communities have developed unique strategies for survival in their respective environments, often practicing transhumance (seasonal migration) to access grazing land and water sources. They have a deep connection to their animals and have developed intricate systems of social organization and cultural practices.

It is important to note that pastoralism is not limited to Africa, and similar communities can be found in other parts of the world, such as the Mongols in Central Asia and the Sami in Northern Europe. The lifestyle of pastoral communities is closely tied to the natural environment, and they face various challenges, including climate change, land degradation, and conflicts over resources.

In conclusion, Bedouins, Berbers, Boran, Maasai, Somali, and Turkana are all pastoral communities found in Africa. These communities rely on animal husbandry and have developed unique cultural practices and ways of life in relation to their herding activities.

A "Bugyal" is a term used to describe vast meadows in the high mountains. These meadows are typically found in the Himalayan region and are known for their scenic beauty and rich biodiversity. They are often used as summer pastures for livestock and are an important source of livelihood for the local communities. The lush green pastures and the panoramic views of the surrounding mountains make bugiyals popular destinations for trekkers and nature lovers.

False, The gujjar cattle herders were origininally from himachal pradesh and came to the UP hills in the nineteenth century.

Impact of Forest Acts on Pastoralists
The Forest Acts significantly changed the lives of pastoralists, who traditionally relied on forest resources for grazing their livestock. The regulations imposed by these acts created a structured but restrictive environment for their movements and access to land.
Regulated Movements
- Under the Forest Acts, pastoralists were no longer free to move through forest areas as they pleased.
- Their movements became regulated, meaning they had to follow specific routes and timings, which disrupted their traditional grazing practices.
Permit Requirement
- Pastoralists were required to obtain permits to enter forest areas.
- This additional bureaucratic step made it difficult for them to access grazing lands spontaneously, hindering their flexibility in managing livestock.
Specified Timing
- The Forest Acts stipulated when pastoralists could enter and leave the forests.
- This specification limited their ability to adapt to seasonal changes or emergencies, such as droughts or floods, affecting their livelihoods.
Overall Consequences
- The combination of regulated movements, permit requirements, and specified timings led to a significant loss of autonomy for pastoralists.
- Their traditional lifestyle, which relied on the freedom to move and adapt, was undermined, making it challenging to sustain their livelihoods.
In summary, the Forest Acts brought about a comprehensive set of regulations that transformed the pastoralists' way of life, as captured in the correct answer: "d) All the above." This encapsulates the multitude of restrictions they faced under these laws.

Pastoralists sustain by:
Pastoralism is a traditional way of life that involves raising livestock for food, clothing, and other resources. Pastoralists rely on various strategies to sustain themselves and their communities. These strategies include herding, cultivation, and trade.

Herding:
One of the primary ways pastoralists sustain themselves is through herding. They raise and manage livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, or camels. Pastoralists have a deep understanding of animal behavior, migration patterns, and the availability of grazing land. They move their herds from one location to another in search of fresh pastures and water sources. By herding animals, pastoralists can obtain milk, meat, fur, and other animal products for their own consumption or for trade.

Cultivation:
While pastoralists primarily rely on herding, some also engage in limited cultivation. They may cultivate small plots of land to grow crops such as grains, vegetables, or fruits. This provides them with additional food sources and helps diversify their diets. Cultivation is usually practiced during periods when livestock cannot find sufficient grazing land or during the off-season when herds are less mobile.

Trade:
Pastoralists often engage in trade to sustain themselves. They may trade livestock, animal products, or agricultural produce with neighboring communities or settled societies. Trade allows pastoralists to acquire goods and resources that are not readily available to them, such as grains, textiles, tools, or luxury items. It also enables them to establish social and economic relationships with other groups, contributing to their overall well-being and resilience.

All of these:
The correct answer is option 'D' - All of these. Pastoralists sustain themselves through a combination of herding, cultivation, and trade. These strategies are interrelated and complement each other, allowing pastoralists to adapt to changing environmental conditions, meet their subsistence needs, and participate in wider economic networks. By diversifying their livelihood strategies, pastoralists can mitigate risks and ensure their long-term survival in often challenging and unpredictable environments.

Introduction:
The Banjaras are a nomadic community in India who were historically known for their trading and transportation skills. They have been found in various regions across the country.
Answer:
The Banjaras were found in the following regions:
1. Uttar Pradesh:
- The Banjaras were found in Uttar Pradesh, which is a state in northern India.
2. Punjab, Rajasthan:
- The Banjaras were also found in the states of Punjab and Rajasthan, which are located in the northwestern part of India.
3. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra:
- The Banjaras were also present in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, which are located in central and western India, respectively.
4. All the above:
- Therefore, the correct answer is option D, which states that the Banjaras were found in all of the above-mentioned regions.
Conclusion:
The Banjaras were a nomadic community found in various regions of India, including Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.

The social changes in Maasai society can be summarized as follows:
1. Traditional Age-Based Hierarchy:
- The traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors, has been disturbed but not broken down.
- This means that while the traditional hierarchy still exists, there have been some changes in the roles and status of different age groups within the community.
2. Emerging Wealth Disparity:
- A new distinction between the wealthy and the poor pastoralists has developed.
- This indicates that there is now a division within the Maasai society based on wealth, with some individuals or families becoming wealthier than others.
3. Combination of Changes:
- The social changes in Maasai society include both the disturbance of the traditional age-based hierarchy and the emergence of wealth disparity.
- Therefore, the correct answer is option C: both (a) and (b).
It is important to note that while these changes have occurred, they do not mean that the traditional Maasai society has completely broken down. Instead, the society has adapted and undergone some transformation while still maintaining certain aspects of its traditional structure.

As reserved forests, which meant that they were protected from any kind of human activity such as logging, grazing, and hunting. The Forest Acts also created provisions for the establishment of forest reserves and protected areas, which were managed by forest officials to ensure the conservation of the forest ecosystem and its biodiversity. The Forest Acts also promoted the practice of silviculture, which is the management of forests to ensure their sustained growth and health. This helped to ensure the availability of timber for commercial purposes while maintaining the ecological balance of the forest ecosystem. Overall, the Forest Acts played a crucial role in the conservation and management of India's forests, which are among the most diverse and biologically rich in the world.

Dhangars, also known as shepherds, are a pastoral community in the central plateau of Maharashtra. They have traditionally practiced animal husbandry and agriculture to sustain their livelihoods. One of the crops sown by the Dhangars in this region is Bajra (pearl millet).

Bajra is a traditional crop that is well-suited to the climate and soil conditions of the central plateau of Maharashtra. It is a hardy crop that can tolerate drought and high temperatures, making it ideal for cultivation in dry and arid regions. Bajra requires minimal water and can grow well in poor soil conditions, making it a reliable crop for the Dhangars in this region.

The Dhangars sow Bajra as a staple crop because of its nutritional value and versatility. Bajra grains are rich in dietary fiber, protein, and essential minerals such as iron, magnesium, and phosphorus. It is also gluten-free, making it suitable for people with gluten intolerance or celiac disease. Bajra can be ground into flour, which is used to make various traditional dishes such as roti (flatbread), bhakri (thick roti), and khichdi (a rice and lentil dish).

The choice to sow Bajra by the Dhangars is also influenced by the availability of resources and the local market demand. Bajra cultivation requires minimal investment in terms of seeds and fertilizers, making it economically viable for small-scale farmers like the Dhangars. Additionally, there is a steady demand for Bajra in the local market as it is a staple food for many communities in Maharashtra.

In conclusion, the Dhangars in the central plateau of Maharashtra sow Bajra as a crop due to its suitability to the local climate, its nutritional value, and its economic viability. Bajra cultivation allows the Dhangars to sustain their livelihoods and meet the dietary needs of their community.

The correct answer is option 'D', which means that all of the above factors were crucial for the sustenance of pastoral groups.

Pastoral groups primarily rely on animal husbandry for their livelihood. They move with their herds in search of water and pasture, ensuring the well-being of their animals and the availability of resources. Let's explore each factor in more detail:

1. Correct judgement of how long the herds could stay in one area, know where to find water and pasture:
Pastoral groups need to have a deep understanding of their environment, including the availability of water sources and suitable grazing areas. They must accurately assess the carrying capacity of the land to determine how long their herds can sustainably graze in a particular location. By practicing proper herd management, they avoid overgrazing and ensure the long-term viability of their herds.

2. Correct calculation of timing, their movements, and ensuring they could move through territories:
Pastoral groups are nomadic in nature and must carefully plan their movements to ensure the well-being of their herds. They need to calculate the timing of their journeys, taking into account factors such as weather conditions, availability of resources, and the distance to the next suitable grazing area. Additionally, they must navigate through various territories, including private lands, communal grazing areas, and sometimes even through different countries. Maintaining good relationships with local communities and respecting their land rights is crucial for the smooth movement of pastoral groups.

3. Setting up relationships with farmers on the way so that the herds could graze:
As pastoral groups move through different regions, they often come across settled agricultural communities. Forming positive relationships with these farmers is important to negotiate grazing rights for their herds. By establishing mutual understanding and cooperation, pastoralists can gain access to cultivated lands after the harvest season. This allows their herds to graze on the crop residues, providing additional nutrition for the animals.

In conclusion, the sustenance of pastoral groups requires a combination of factors, including correct judgement of resource availability, accurate calculation of movement timing, and the establishment of relationships with farmers along their routes. These factors ensure the well-being of their herds and the sustainability of their way of life.

This is because raikas lived in rajasthan