UGC NET Paper 2 Education Mock Test - 3 - UGC NET MCQ

In today's era of globalization, the Indian social system which is a democratic society promotes the goal of equality (equal opportunities for everyone) and excellence (Individual's overall development and making an individual self-reliant). So, the goal of equality and excellence are not two opposite poles.

Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of knowledge, nature, existence, and meaning of life through various theories, facts, and reasoning. 

John Dewey:

• John Dewey was an American philosopher belonging to western school of thoughts. He was pioneer of pragmatism (school of thoughts which believes in scientific and practical approach).
• According to John Dewey, ‘Education is not a preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences’.
• Dewey's philosophy of school as a miniature society is based on democratic education and scientific method of learning which also states that school is a replica of society but it doesn't mention anything about goals of excellence. Therefore the goal of equality and excellence will be viewed as two opposite poles in terms of pragmatism

Mahatma Gandhi:

• Mahatma Gandhi believes in Idealism (a school of thought which believes in ideals and values).
• Gandhi's philosophy of basic education is based on the principle of nonviolence, injustice and equality (equal opportunities every individual) and excellence (focuses on overall development of the individual).
• Idealism in education emphasizes the development of the self, develop individual abilities, and moral skills to be a responsible person and serve the society in a better way.
• Gandhiji’s educational philosophy ideal on self-realization and character building of an individual. He believed in “education for life, education through life, and education throughout life”.
• He strongly felt that basic education should be value-based and at the same time job centred and mass-oriented.
• This philosophy supports the Indian social system. Therefore the goal of equality and excellence will not be viewed as two opposite poles in terms of idealism.

Shankaracharya:

• Shankaracharya's Vedantic philosophy (based on Hindu religious texts like Vedas) who belongs to orthodox school of philosophy of education which doesn't focuses on equality and excellence.

Mohammad:

• Mohammad's Islamic philosophy states that every men and women should pursue education but nothing is mentioned about excellence.

Key Points Curriculum design

• Curriculum design focuses on the creation of the overall course blueprint, mapping content to learning objectives, including how to develop a course outline and build the course.
• Each learning objective is met with assessment strategies, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, and interactive activities.
• Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course.

Curriculum change:

• Curriculum change is a learning process for teachers and for their schools.
• A good understanding of change and a clear conception of the curriculum are necessary conditions for improved implementation of the new curriculum into practice.

Curriculum evaluation:

• Curriculum evaluation is an essential phase of curriculum development.
• Through evaluation, a faculty discovers whether a curriculum is fulfilling its purpose and whether students are actually learning.
• The term ‘curriculum evaluation’ has historically been used to refer to the evaluation of curriculum products and to the evaluation of curriculum programs within specific field contexts.

Curriculum criticism:

• Curriculum criticism is a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of. educational materials and settings. 
• Criticism combines and adapts information collection and reporting techniques of social anthropology and aesthetics. 
• Criticism in order to help others perceive and understand educational phenomena more fully.

Conclusion:

Curriculum designs provide clear relationships between and among the different elements of the curriculum: objectives, contents, activities, and evaluation.

• Change is the law of nature. With time changes should be made in the curriculum for better teaching strategy and better learning processes.
• Evaluation is an essential part of curriculum development as it helps to find out whether the real purpose is fulfilled or not. While critiques help to find the educational purpose more elaborately.

So, it could be concluded that curriculum design can be viewed as an arrangement of materials prepared in advance and intended for instruction. Hence, option (2) is correct.

Andragogy

Andragogy is defined as the art or science of teaching adults or helping adults learner. It is based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners where teachers are defined as facilitators of learning.

Key Points

•  Andragogy is built on the premise that adults are more self-directed and motivated than children, and then they need to be given the opportunity to learn in ways that are relevant to their lives.
• Malcolm Knowles is known as the father of andragogy. Six assumptions for designing adult learning given by Knowles are as follows:-

1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something.
2. Adults need to build on their experience.
3. Adults need to feel responsible for their learning.
4. Adults are ready to learn if training solves an immediate problem.
5. Adults want their training to be problem focused.
6. Adults learn best when motivation comes intrinsically.

• With the help of these assumptions we can describe the principles of andragogy-

Need to know

The reason adults need to know they are being asked to learn is they want to understand "what is in in for me" will notes adults more likely to pay attention.

Experience

Adult learners come with experience and with this experience it should provide the basis for most of the learning activities.

Self-Concept

When you give adults the autonomy to control over their learning, they can thrive on self-direction.

Readiness

When training can help adults solve an immediate real-life problem, this is when they learn best.

Problem Orientation

Adults want to learn specific knowledge, skills, and abilities to solve a problem rather than some generic content.

Intrinsic Motivation

The sixth principle of andragogy is finding the learner's internal motivator, that makes adults feel better.

Thus, option 4 is correct.

Hence, we can conclude that Andragogy refers to Adults Learning.

• ‌Xerophthalmia is a disease that causes dry eyes due to vitamin A deficiency. A lack of vitamin A can dry out your tear ducts and eyes. Xerophthalmia can develop into night blindness or more serious damage to your eye's cornea, the outer layer. This damage may be white spots on your eyes and ulcers on your corneas. Xerophthalmia can usually be reversed with vitamin A therapy.
• Vitamin A is an essential nutrient that is required by the body for a variety of functions, including the maintenance of healthy eyesight. Not enough vitamin A in the body can lead to several problems with the eyes, including dryness, corneal ulcers, and even blindness.
• Xerophthalmia is most commonly seen in developing countries where there is a lack of access to nutritious food sources, as well as in individuals with certain medical conditions that interfere with the absorption of vitamin A.

Hence option 01 is the correct answer.

The first National Educational Policy (NEP) was based on the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964–1966). It was promulgated in 1968 and required a “radical restructuring” and equalizing educational opportunities in order to achieve national integration and greater cultural and economic development. The policy set the path of educational development and aimed at fulfilling the cherished goal of compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as stipulated by the Constitution of India, and the better training and qualifications of the teachers. The basic tenets of the policy included:

• Free and Compulsory Education: Making serious efforts to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, and to reduce the prevailing wastage and stagnation in schools, as well as, to ensure that every child who is enrolled in school successfully completes the prescribed course.
• Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers: According teachers an honoured place in society and protecting their academic freedom, ensuring adequate and satisfactory emoluments and satisfactory service conditions, and emphasizing teacher education, particularly in-service teacher education.
• Development of languages: Development of regional languages, to implement effectively, the three-language formula at the secondary stage.
• Equalization of Educational Opportunity: Equalizing educational opportunity, to promote social cohesion and national integration by correcting regional imbalances, by admitting students on the basis of merit in all schools like public schools, and by protecting interests of socially deprived sections.
• Spread of Literacy and Adult Education: Liquidating mass illiteracy and providing continuing education for functional literacy among employees in commercial and industrial establishments. Such linkage is necessary to make technical and vocational education at the secondary stage, effectively terminal.
• Production of Books: Producing high-quality books for children, low-cost textbooks for schools and universities.
• Games and Sports Developing games and sports at large scale, with the object of improving the physical fitness and sportsmanship of the students
• Part-time Education and Correspondence Courses: Developing part-time education and correspondence courses, of the same status as full-time courses, on a large scale for the university and school students, teachers and workers.

Hence, we conclude that both the statements about NPE 1968 are correct.

Robert Gagne put forward the conditions or events of learning theory. According to Gagne, learning is supposed to result in the enhancement of a person’s performance and capabilities by acquiring new ways of behaving. His theory emphasized that different internal and external conditions or events are necessary for each type or level of learning.

Types of Gagne’s Hierarchical Structure of Learning:

• Signal Learning – Signal learning is the simplest form of learning. It consists essentially of Pavlov’s Classical conditioning. The learner learns to make a generalized response to a signal or stimulus (known as conditioned stimulus).
• Stimulus-Response Learning (S-R Learning): This is a sophisticated form of learning, which is also known as Operant conditioning originally developed by Skinner. It involves developing desired stimulus-response bonds. Here, a stimulus is properly discriminated against for a response.
• Chaining: This is a more advanced form of learning in which two or more than two Stimulus-Response (S-R) connections are joined together into a linked sequence. 
• Verbal Association: During this type of learning, the learner is formed to emit chained responses of S-R type by making verbal association. It’s one of the key processes within the development of language skills.
• Multiple Discrimination: This is a stage of good discrimination to learn in making different responses to different stimuli. This process is made more complex by the phenomenon of interference.
• Concept Learning: In this type of learning, one learns to provide a common response to a class of stimuli. It forms the idea of the power to generalize, classify, etc.
• Rule Learning: Rule learning also known as learning of Principles. Principles are generated through the chaining of two or more concepts. This is a very high-level cognitive process, forms the basis of the learning of general rules, procedures, etc.
• Problem Solving: This is the highest form of cognitive process which involves higher mental or cognitive abilities for making use of the concept and rules for solving one or the other problem.

Hence, According to Gagne, the correct sequence of a type of learning is establishing S-R connection ⇒ Multiple discrimination ⇒ Principle learning ⇒ Problem-solving 

The correct answer is All of the above.

Key Points

• The Model School scheme aims to provide quality education to talented rural children through setting up of 6,000 model schools at the rate of one school per block as benchmark of excellence.
• The scheme has the following objectives
  • To have at least one good quality senior secondary school in every block.
  • To have a pace setting role
  • To try out innovative curriculum and pedagogy
  • To be a model in infrastructure, curriculum, evaluation and school governance.

The main role of a teacher is to promote quality learning among the students. To accomplish this, the teacher has to identify the areas where the learner commits mistakes. Administering a test is just one of the ways of doing that.

A Test: It is a procedure intended to establish the quality, performance or reliability of something. Test reliability and validity are two technical properties of a test that indicate the quality and usefulness of the test.

Characteristics of a Good Test:

• Validity: The test must measure what it has been designed to measure.
• Reliability: It means the consistency with which a test yields the same result in measuring whatever they do measure.
• Objectivity: A test is objective when it makes for the elimination of the scorer’s personal opinion or bias judgment.
• Usability: The test must have a practical value from time, economy and administration point of views.

Intervention: It refers to the action or process of intervening. It considers coexisting strengths and needs in all areas to ensure individualized treatment and supports.

Practice: It refers to the actual application or use of an idea, belief, or method, as opposed to theories relating to it or Repeated exercise in or performance of an activity or skill to acquire or maintain proficiency in it.

Measure: It refers to ascertaining the size, amount or degree of (something) by using an instrument or device marked in standard units.

Hence, it is clear that a procedure intended to establish the quality, performance or reliability of something is known as a test.

From prehistoric time experts has been trying to understand and explain leadership, however, differences in opinion and isolated ideas failed to demonstrated a comprehensive process of leadership that make an ordinary person leader or an ordinary leader an effective leader.

Key Points

The comprehensive leadership model tries to portray a complete leadership that integrates all the isolated opinions of experts that can be generalized in a different perspective.

Leadership is a comprehensive process which understood as the ability some people have to guide or command other people's actions. It is more than just that, though. A comprehensive leader is a dominating individual and supporting group of people.

• Leader knows himself quite well, both his weaknesses and strong points.
• Leader summons for personality, not by fear.
• Leader is supported by strong background knowledge.
• Leader makes use of strong common sense.
• Leader exchanges some ideas among the group and also direct them about their goals and help them to achieve them.
• Leader has a personal relationship with any and all of his followers.
• Leader knows how to make use of his people's strengths and weaknesses to achieve the goals they had in mind.
• Leader serves others in the achievement of the objectives, and not the other way round.

The correct answer is Children with IQ of 80 and above can learn and benefit from normal education.

• Inclusive Education addresses the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers inside schools. It is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. This educational approach provides all students with greater opportunities for academic and social achievement.
• Inclusive systems provide a better quality education for all children and are instrumental in changing discriminatory attitudes. Schools provide the context for a child's first relationship with the world outside their families, enabling the development of social relationships and interactions.
• The students can now learn from the lesson how to help each other. Socialization in the school allows the students to learn communication skills and interaction skills from each other. Students can build friendships from these interactions. The students can also learn about hobbies from each other.

Fundamental Duty is a notion which conveys a sense of moral obligation and commitment to someone or to something. People must perform different kinds of duties in daily life namely duties towards their family, workplace, and ultimately the modern state. Ancient Roman philosopher Cicero also discusses duty in his work ‘De Officiis’ (On Duties) where he opines that duties may come from four different sources viz. wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. 

Fundamental Duties:

After the passage of the 42nd and 86th Constitutional Amendments, there are 11 Fundamental Duties of the citizens of India. These are as follows:

• To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem.
• To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom.
• To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
• To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
• To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, and regional or sectional diversities to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
• To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
• To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.
• To develop the scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
• To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
• To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.  
• To provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

Therefore, option 4 is the correct answer.

Assertion and reasoning type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). We must first determine whether the statement is true. If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion.

Key Points First, we will consider the statement of Assertion.

• Higher education occupies a special position in the educational system of any nation because it is at the apex of the entire educational structure and thus influences all levels of education.
• The purpose of Higher education is to provide knowledge and to promote critical and creative thinking abilities among students.
• These skills are important for both personal and professional development. 

Hence, the statement provided in the assertion is true.

Now we will consider the statement of Reason.

• Critical and creative thinking abilities among students ensure job placements are the correct statement.
• Higher education instills you with the discipline required in the professional world. 
• Having Critical thinking and creative skills does not ensure job placement but these skills will help in decision-making and solving problems encountered in daily lives.

Hence, both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Inclusive Education addresses the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers inside schools. It is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. This educational approach provides all students with greater opportunities for academic and social achievement.Key Points

• Special children if included in normal classroom further lag behind as performance. The views of students should be given due importance. Children with IQ 80 and above has Low average Intelligence. Children with IQ 80 and above can learn and benefit from normal education.
• Mental retardation refers to an intellectual disability characterized by a low Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and impairments in adaptive daily life skills. The impact of this disorder may vary in different individuals, ranging from mild to profound.
• Educable mentally retarded refers to a term used for the learners who possess mild mental retardation thus they are capable to learn with appropriate help and guidance.
  • Characteristics of mild mentally retarded learners:
  1. An IQ score of 50-70.
  2. Need limited support.
  3. Can't be diagnosed easily.
  4. Able to learn but learn slowly.

Therefore, children with an IQ of 80 and above can learn and benefit from normal education.

Additional Information Following scores suggest different types of intellectual abilities-

The people who manage the universities are:

1. The Visitor/Chancellor:
   • ​​Appoints the Vice-Chancellor.
   • Nominate the specified number of members on the Executive Council/Syndicate.
   • Approve/disapprove the statutes and ordinances or amendments to them.
   • The institution of inquiries into mismanagement, if any. These functions are vested in authority outside the university to ensure objectivity and fairness in their performance.
2. The Chancellor
   • ​​The Central Universities have a statutory office of Chancellor who is the head of the University.
   • An eminent person in public life is appointed to this office by the Visitor on the recommendation of the Executive Council. 
   • S/he is not vested with any other functions or powers.
   • The State Universities do not have a corresponding statutory office. The Governor, who is the Chancellor, also performs these roles. To that extent, s/he is deemed to be an officer of the university. This duality in the role of the Chancellor's office in State Universities has often caused considerable ambiguity and confusion.
3.  The Vice-chancellor
   • The vice-chancellor is the administrative and academic head (Chief Executive Officer) of the university.​​
   • The vice-chancellor of Indian universities is appointed by the Visitor/Chancellor from a panel of names recommended by a Committee of eminent persons specially constituted for this purpose.
   • The vice-chancellor is ex-officio the Chairman of the Executive Council (Syndicate or Board of Management) and the Academic Council as well as the Finance Committee and other statutory bodies like Planning Board and Selection Committees. 
   • As the Chief Executive, h/she is responsible for ensuring that the university functions in accordance with the provisions of the Act, statutes, ordinances, and regulations.
   • He/she is responsible for ensuring discipline among teachers, staff, and students.
   • In an emergency, he/she can exercise any power of any authority and report the matter to the authority concerned for the ratification of the decision. He/she can delegate his powers to other officers. 
4.  The Pro-Vice-Chancellor/Rector
   • ​​The Pro-Vice-Chancellor/Rector is the second level executive officer in a university, who is appointed by the Executive council on the recommendations of the vice-chancellor.
   • He/she exercises the powers and performs the duties that are prescribed by the university or delegated by the vice-chancellor. 
   •  the prime functions of the PVC/Rector is a kind of partnership with the vice-chancellor to ensure the effective functioning of the university. 
5. The Deans
   • ​​Dean of Faculty is the Head of the faculty and is responsible to the Vice-Chancellor for the organization of the teaching and research programs as well as maintenance of the standards of teaching, research, and extension functions in the faculty.
   • A Dean is normally appointed from among the Professors in the departments that comprise the faculty for a period of 2-3 years through a system of rotation according to seniority.
6.  Registrar
   • ​​ the head of the administrative wing of a university
   • S/He leads the university's civil service is the custodian of all university records and represents the university in all its dealings with the outside world.
   • S/He is ex-officio, the Secretary of all the Statutory bodies of the university, issues notices for their meetings, prepares the agenda, and also the minutes of the meetings. These key functions of the Registrar enable him/her to occupy a position of pre-eminence in university management.
   • The Registrar is normally appointed by the Executive Council (Syndicate) on the recommendation of a Selection Committee presided over by the vice-chancellor. 
7.  The Finance Officer
   • ​​The Finance Officer is the manager of the University's funds and properties. 
   • The Finance Officer is responsible mainly for managing government funds, an officer from the government appoints on deputation to this position by the universities.

Hence, the Vice-Chancellor is the administrative and academic head of the Indian University System.

Senses are important because they allow us to perceive the world in which we live. Our five senses are our sense of sight (also known as vision), smell (olfaction), hearing (audition), taste (gustation), and touch (somatosensation).

The four recommendations of the University Education Commission of 1948 on the Aims and Objectives of Higher Education were: The universities have to provide leadership in politics, administration, education, industry and commerce. The aim of university education should be to produce intellectual adventures.

Eight principles of effective teaching

• Develop mastery learning. 
• Don't dismiss knowledge as 'lower order'
• Expect excellence from all.
• Guide learning. 
• Ensure that students have to think hard. 
• Put deliberate practice into lessons.
• Test to improve learning. 
• Use questioning frequently and rigorously.

The English tried to discourage Muslims politically socially and Morally.

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.

The father of our more modern physical education classes is Friedrich Jahn, who was a teacher in the early 1800s who began teaching a program of outdoor physical education activities for students in the secondary schools where he taught.

Multiple-choice tests:

it is one of the most common forms of tests that are taken in any classroom. These tests are taken in order to assess the complex concepts as well as the simple understandings of the student. Multiple-choice tests are specially designed to determine the readiness of a student in answering a specific question. Since all the possible answers are given, it does not take much time calculating and devising a new answer.

Learning from observation is a common and natural method of human learning. Observational learning (also known as vicarious learning, social learning, or modelling) is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behaviour executed by others. It is different from imitation in which the observer copies and reproduces the behaviour of the model. In observational learning, we think and judge and learn not only how to do certain things but also what the consequences of our action are likely to be. According to Bandura (1977), the following four distinct processes are involved in observational learning:

• Attention Process: We do not imitate the total behaviour of a model, instead, we focus on specific aspects that we are interested to learn. We pay attention to significant features of the behaviour we want to learn. For example, a child learning to write in good hand writing watches her teacher and keenly observe the way she is holding the pen, moving her fingers, where she is using capital letters and does not pay attention to how the teacher is dressed or how she walks.
• Retention Process: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. We need to remember the things observed through some way of using symbols, understanding and organizing our observations. Usually we employ two processes for retention: first storing the things observed as visuals in our memory and then rehearsing the sequence of actions mentally. Bandura (1977) suggests that the best way to learn from a model is to organize and rehearse the observed behaviour cognitively (mentally with proper thinking) and then act it out.
• Motor Reproduction Process: After we have retained the observed behaviour through rehearsal of the visual images, the behaviour has to be transformed into physical actions. For this one needs two things. First, he must have basic requirements for the action to be performed by him. 
• The second aspect for transforming the observed behaviour to action is to actually practice the sequence of actions. Having a perfect visual imagery and mental rehearsal of the actions will not help the observer to perform the act spontaneously.
• Motivational Process: You must have come across some children who have learnt very well through observational learning as they can vividly describe the steps of action and can perform it perfectly. But often they do not perform as and when required. In such cases, what they lack is proper motivation to act. The child is required to be motivated especially self-motivated to act.

Hence, we conclude that Observational learning is also known as vicarious learning, social learning, or modelling.

Important Points

Qualitative research: 

• It is a naturalist approach that seeks an understanding of social phenomena.
• It deals with human behavior from an informant's perspective.  
• This type of research analyzes non-numeric data. 
• It focuses on the ‘why and what’ of social phenomena.
• Inductive in approach.
• It has a Post Positivist approach.
• In a qualitative research proposal, you would not expect to see a hypothesis.

Key Points

Research proposal: 

• A research proposal is a document used for proposing a research project. 
• It is used widely in academia. 
• It is a structured formal document.
• It generally constitutes a request for grant or sponsorship for the research.
• It demonstrates that a researcher is capable of successfully conducting the proposed research project.

Hence, in a qualitative research proposal, you would not expect to see a Hypothesis.

The correct answer is 'The obvious role of schools as knowledge transfer institutions is fading, but the role of schools in society is becoming stronger.

Key Points

• Fifth line of the first paragraph states, 'We are faced with a seemingly contradictory situation; on one hand, the obvious role of schools as knowledge transfer institutions is fading, whilst on the other hand the role of schools in society is becoming stronger.'
• Something is contradictory when it talks about two things but both of them cannot be correct.
  • For example, Here obvious role of the school is fading but at the same time role of the school is becoming stronger in the society.
• The word seemingly means to give the impression of having a certain quality. Therefore the situation is seemingly contradictory which means it appears to be contradictory but it is actually not.

Hence, according to the passage seemingly contradictory situation is the fading of the obvious role of schools but at the same time role of schools is becoming strong in society.

Additional Information

• The final lines of the first paragraph mention 'The importance of education for an individual and society contradict the growing dissatisfaction with schools.'
• It's easy to get confused between option 1 and 2 due to the similar word contradictory.
• However we have to focus on what the sentence means and also, we need to match the phrases in the question with the passage.
• The question asks what is a seemingly contradictory situation and this phrase appears exactly in the beginning lines of the first paragraph of the passage and not at the end of the same paragraph.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through a 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Key Points

• A teacher should always cater (accept) to the individual differences of the children in the class.
• individual differences can be defined as personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each other in the teaching and learning processes.  
• The main goal of progressive education is to get students to have a hands-on learning experience, i.e. learn by doing. Also known as experiential learning, this method sees active participation by students in hands-on projects.
• Hence by all the above references, we can conclude that Both (A) and (R) are false.

Important Points 
Key features of progressive education: 

• Focusing on learning by doing: This includes working on hands-on projects thereby paving the way for experiential learning, aka learning by experience.
• Integrated curriculum: This is a curriculum that covers a broad spectrum of themes.
• Problem-solving and critical thinking: They are the cornerstones of progressive education; the whole idea is to have students take on problems and solve them thus helping them hone their critical thinking.

In the process of learning, motivation creates interest for learning among new learners.

In this narrow sense, “value theory” is roughly synonymous with “axiology”. Axiology can be thought of as primarily concerned with classifying what things are good, and how good they are.

If a child is a back bencher and unable to watch the blackboard clearly. As a result he stands, sees and sits repeatedly. Both (a) and (b) inference will regarding this case.

The current view of childhood assumes that childhood is a unique period of growth and change.

As pre-teenage(age between 9 to 12) children enter into teenage,

• the significance of peer relationships increases drastically.
• By age 12, they start to define their self-worth in terms of what their peers think of them.
• This is a time of intense change in a pre-teen’s life.
• At this stage, their need to please adults gets replaced by the need for belonging and approval from peers.
• These young adolescents crave approval not from their family but from peers. They, usually, gain peer approval by openly rebelling parents and engaging in risk-taking