Test: Political Actors and Approaches - UGC NET MCQ

Characteristics of a Proportional Representation System

• Divided into Small Geographical Units: In a Proportional Representation system, the country is divided into small geographical units such as constituencies or districts. This allows for more localized representation and diversity within the legislative body.
• Candidate May Not Get Majority Votes: Unlike a winner-take-all system, in Proportional Representation, the candidate who wins the election may not necessarily receive a majority of votes (50%+1). This ensures that various voices and opinions are represented in the legislature.
• More Seats than Votes: A key characteristic of Proportional Representation is that a party may receive more seats in the legislature than the actual percentage of votes it garnered. This feature helps in accommodating minority viewpoints and promoting diversity in decision-making.
• Proportional Allocation of Seats: Every party in a Proportional Representation system receives seats in the legislature in proportion to the percentage of votes it secured. For example, if a party receives 30% of the votes, it should ideally secure approximately 30% of the seats in the legislature. This ensures a fair representation of voter preferences and promotes inclusivity.

The correct option is 'A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4'.

Key Points

• Cyber Attacks - This form of warfare involves the use of social media, cyberspace, and AI to carry out attacks.
  • Cyber attacks refer to the use of computer networks and devices to launch attacks against other computer systems or networks.
  • These attacks can include the spread of malware, ransomware, and other malicious software that can damage or disrupt the targeted systems. Data mining, on the other hand, refers to the use of algorithms and other techniques to extract useful information from large datasets.
  • In the context of cyber attacks, data mining may be used to gather information on targets, such as their online behaviour, preferences, and vulnerabilities, which can then be used to launch more effective attacks.
• Socio-Psychological Tactical Attacks - This form of warfare manipulates refugee populations to incite protests and cause unrest.
  • Socio-psychological tactical attacks refer to the use of psychological tactics to manipulate social and political outcomes.
  • These tactics can include the use of propaganda, misinformation, and disinformation to shape public opinion, incite unrest, and destabilize governments.
  • Refugee काम is one example of this, where refugees are manipulated to incite protests or other forms of civil unrest in their host countries.
  • This can be done through various means, such as providing financial incentives, disseminating false information, or organizing protests.
• Terrorism - This form of warfare involves conflicts between states and non-state actors.
  • Terrorism is the use of violence and intimidation in the pursuit of political aims.
  • The spectrum of conflict now ranges from conflicts between states to conflicts with non-state actors and proxies.
  • This means that terrorist organizations and other non-state actors, such as militias or guerrilla groups, are increasingly becoming involved in conflicts that were once the exclusive domain of nation-states.
  • Proxies, or surrogate forces that are backed by one state but operate in another, are also becoming more common in conflicts around the world.
• Economic Warfare -  This form of warfare involves using economic tools to achieve strategic objectives.
  • Biological and chemical war refers to the use of biological or chemical agents as weapons of war.
  • These agents can include toxins, viruses, and other harmful substances that are designed to kill or incapacitate large numbers of people.
  • Nuclear war, on the other hand, refers to the use of nuclear weapons in warfare.
  • Nuclear weapons are highly destructive and have the potential to kill millions of people and cause widespread damage to infrastructure and the environment.
  • Both biological/chemical and nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction and are highly controversial due to their potential for catastrophic consequences.

The Correct Answer is 2, 3 and 4 only

• The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established on 28 March 2002 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401. This means statement 1 is not correct.
• UNAMA was primarily created to assist the state and the people of Afghanistan in establishing a foundation for sustainable peace and development. This aligns with statement 2 being correct.
• The original mandate of UNAMA was to support the implementation of the Bonn Agreement in December 2001. Therefore, statement 3 is correct.
• The Bonn Agreement negotiations were conducted behind closed doors, participants were isolated, and there was limited outside contact during the process. This validates statement 4 as correct.

In News

• The recent engagement of UNAMA with women activists in Afghanistan highlights the organization's commitment to supporting the people of Afghanistan.

Key Points

• UNAMA
  • The mission was established in 2002 by the UN Security Council to aid in Afghanistan's peace and development.
  • UNAMA's initial focus was on supporting the Bonn Agreement's implementation.
  • Over time, UNAMA's mandate has evolved to meet the country's changing needs.
  • It operates as an integrated mission with various UN entities working together to assist Afghanistan based on national priorities.
• Bonn Agreement
  • The Bonn negotiations were secretive, excluding certain parties like the Taliban, and had limited publicity until the agreement was signed.
  • International actors, including the UN, played significant roles in advancing the negotiations.
  • The Bonn Agreement set out a roadmap for political and administrative transitions in Afghanistan.
• UN Special Political Missions
  • These missions, like the Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, fall outside the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs' jurisdiction.

The Key Characteristic of "First Past the Post" Electoral System

• Voter votes for a candidate: In a "First Past the Post" electoral system, voters directly vote for the candidate of their choice.
• For example, in a constituency with multiple candidates, each voter selects the candidate they want to support by marking their choice on the ballot.
• The candidate who receives the highest number of votes, even if they do not secure an absolute majority, wins the election in this system.

The Importance of Proportional Representation

• Proportional representation:
  • Proportional Representation is a system used to elect a country’s government in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them.
  • Proportional Representation (PR) characterizes electoral systems in which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body.
  • If n% of the electorate supports a particular political party as their favorite, then roughly n% of seats will be won by that party.
  • The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result, not just a plurality, or a bare majority.
  • The most widely used families of PR electoral systems are party-list PR, the single transferable vote (STV), and mixed-member proportional representation (MMP).

Additional Information on Proportional Representation

• Proportional Representation practice in India:
  • The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly, rather than by the citizens at large like how it is for the Lok Sabha.
  • Rajya Sabha members are elected by each state Vidhan Sabha using the single transferable vote system.
  • Unlike most federal systems, the number of members returned by each state is roughly in proportion to their population.
  • The single transferable vote uses multiple-member districts, with voters casting only one vote each but ranking individual candidates in order of preference (by providing backup preferences).
  • During the count, as candidates are elected or eliminated, surplus or discarded votes that would otherwise be wasted are transferred to other candidates according to the preferences, forming consensus groups that elect surviving candidates.
  • STV enables voters to vote across party lines, to choose the most preferred of a party’s candidates, and vote for independent candidates, knowing that if the candidate is not elected his/her vote will likely not be wasted if the voter marks backup preferences on the ballot.

The Role of Violent Non-State Actors (VNSAs)

• Definition: Violent non-state actors are individuals or groups that operate independently of governments and use violence or the threat of violence to achieve their goals.
• Characteristics: VNSAs can have diverse objectives, scopes, and methodologies. They can range from drug cartels to self-defense militias and paramilitary organizations.
• Examples: Organizations like ISIS, Boko Haram, and Hezbollah are considered VNSAs due to their reliance on violence to achieve their objectives.
• Non-Violent Example: The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is an example of a group that, although politically active, does not primarily rely on violence. It was established in 1964 with the initial aim of Arab unification and statehood over the former Mandatory Palestine territory.

Therefore, the PLO is NOT classified as a Violent Non-State Actor (VNSA).

Consider the following statements about electoral constituencies:

1. The country is divided into different areas for purposes of elections.
2. The voters who live in an area elect one or more representatives.
3. The representative elected from each constituency is called a Member of Parliament or an MP.

Which of the following combination is correct?

The correct answer is '1 and 3'.

Key Points

• "The country is divided into different areas for purposes of elections."
  • This statement is correct.
  • The country is indeed divided into different areas, known as electoral constituencies or electoral districts, for the purpose of conducting elections.
  • These areas are demarcated to ensure fair representation and effective governance.
• "The voters who live in an area elect one or more representatives."
  • This statement is incorrect.
  • The voters who live in an area elect only one representative, not one or more representatives.
  • In most electoral systems, each electoral constituency is associated with the election of a single representative.
  • This is known as a single-member constituency system.
  • However, in some systems, such as proportional representation, multiple representatives may be elected from a larger constituency.
• "The representative elected from each constituency is called a Member of Parliament or an MP."
  • This statement is correct.
  • The representative elected from each constituency is commonly referred to as a Member of Parliament (MP) in countries that follow a parliamentary system of governance.
  • The MP represents the constituency and serves as a representative of the people in the legislative body, such as the Parliament.

• Understanding Terrorism:
  • Terrorism is a form of political violence that specifically targets civilians in an indiscriminate manner.
  • International terrorism involves actions that affect citizens or territories of more than one country.
  • Terrorist groups aim to bring about political change through the use of force or the threat of force.
• Selection of Targets:
  • Civilian targets are often chosen to create fear among the public and to leverage public discontent against governments or other conflicting parties.
  • Classic cases of terrorism include activities like hijacking planes or planting bombs in crowded places such as trains, cafes, or markets.
• Global Impact:
  • Following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Centre in America, there has been increased awareness and attention towards terrorism globally.
  • Historically, terror attacks have been prevalent in regions like the Middle East, Europe, Latin America, and South Asia.

Based on the discussion above, it can be concluded that the following statements are correct:
(A) International terrorism involves the citizens or territory of more than one country.
(C) The classic cases of terrorism involve hijacking planes or planting bombs in public places.

Understanding the Shift from "Government" to "Governance"

• Governance entails a diffusion of authority and collaboration among state, market, and civil society actors in policy formulation and implementation.

Explaining the Concept:

The term "governance" expands the traditional notion of "government" to recognize the intricate network of actors involved in managing societies. While "government" typically refers to formal state institutions, "governance" offers a more comprehensive perspective. Here are some key distinctions:

1. Diffusion of Authority: Unlike traditional government setups that centralize power, governance acknowledges multiple sources of authority. This means authority is not concentrated solely within the state but is shared among different actors.

2. Collaboration and Partnerships: Governance highlights the importance of collaboration. It involves partnerships among governmental bodies, private sector organizations, NGOs, and other civil society entities. These collaborations aim to address societal issues, recognizing the need for collective efforts in tackling complex challenges.

3. Flexibility: Governance models prioritize adaptability, allowing for innovative and tailored solutions to address diverse issues. This flexibility is crucial in a globalized context where problems often transcend national borders.

• The Hare System / Single Transferable Vote System: This system involves electing candidates through a proportional representation electoral system. In this system, a quota is determined, ensuring that a candidate captures a seat. Voters mark their preferences, and ballot papers move between candidates accordingly.
• List Proportional Representation: This is a type of proportional representation electoral system where multiple candidates are elected based on their position on an electoral list. It can be part of mixed-member electoral systems.
• Alternative Voting System: In this system, voters can provide preferences for multiple candidates. They can choose to vote for only one candidate (bullet voting), and some regions consider a single box marked with an "X" as a valid first preference.
• Electoral System: It is a set of rules that govern how elections and referendums are conducted, as well as how results are determined.

Therefore, the Hare system is also known as the Single Transferable Vote System.