UGC NET Paper 2 Sociology Mock Test - 4 - UGC NET MCQ

Radcliffe Brown consider sociology as a science of human society. Alf red Reginald Radcliff fe-Brown (January 17, 1881 – October 24, 1955) was a British social anthropologist who developed the theory of “structural-functionalism, Although Radcliff fe-Brown’s theories perse was rejected by later anthropologists, his work influenced many researchers and has led to advances in the understanding of human societies worldwide.

Urbanism is one aspect of created environment brought about by spread of Industrialism. Urbanism is the study of how inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities, interact with the built environment.

Urbanism is the way of living or characteristics of lifestyle of people living in urban areas. Urbanization and Urbanism used as synonym but they are different terms, Urbanization is a process of development of urban areas while Urbanism is the way of living of the inhabitants of urban area.

The peasant movements, revolts, riots, struggles, etc. in 19th century, India remained mainly localised because they grew out of local grievances.Key Points

• The peasant movements, revolts, riots, struggles, etc. in 19th century, India remained mainly localised because they grew out of local grievances.
• Some of the reasons for this include:
  • ​Lack of communication and transportation: 
    • India is a vast and diverse country, and in the 19th century, there was no easy way for peasants from different regions to communicate and coordinate with each other.
    • This made it difficult to build a nationwide peasant movement.
  • Regional differences: 
    • The peasants in different regions of India faced different problems and had different grievances.
    • For example, the indigo peasants in Bengal were forced to grow indigo instead of food crops, while the Deccan peasants were suffering from high land revenue and the exploitation of moneylenders.
    • These regional differences made it difficult to unite the peasants in a common struggle.
  • British suppression: 
    • The British colonial government was quick to suppress any signs of peasant unrest.
    • They used their military and police forces to crush peasant movements, and they also enacted laws that made it difficult for peasants to organize and protest.
• Despite these challenges, there were a number of important peasant movements in 19th-century India.
• Some of the most notable examples include the Indigo Rebellion (1859-62), the Pabna Movement (1870s-1880s), and the Deccan Riots (1875).
• These movements forced the British government to make some concessions, such as reducing land revenue and regulating the activities of moneylenders.
• However, these peasant movements were unable to achieve their ultimate goal of overthrowing British rule.
• This was due in part to the factors mentioned above, as well as the lack of a strong leadership and a clear ideology.
• Nevertheless, the peasant movements of the 19th century played an important role in the Indian independence movement, and they helped to raise awareness of the plight of the Indian peasantry.

The correct answer is 1, 2 and 3 are correct.
Key Points

• Urbanization:
  • Urbanization refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas. 
  • It predominantly results in the physical growth of urban areas, be it horizontal or vertical.
  • The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.
  • By 2050 it is predicted that 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and developed world respectively will be urbanized.
  • rbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization.
  • Urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i.e. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time.
• Causes of Urbanisation:
  • Growth of employment in cities is attracting people from rural areas as well as smaller cities to large towns which results in high rates of emigration from rural to urban areas. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • Expansion in government services, public health, educational infrastructure, etc. also results in urbanization. Hence statement 2 is correct.
• Growth of the private sector after 1990 lead to industrialization. Hence statement 3 is correct.
• It is being driven by economic compulsions where people move out for economic advancements to areas offering better job opportunities.
• Urbanization results in a high standard of living in the urban area. Hence statement 4 is Not correct.

Additional Information

• Salient features of Indian Urban Centers:
• A sociological analysis of the urban community contains several salient features.
• Size:
  • As a rule, in the same country and at the same period, the size of an urban community is much larger than that of a rural community.
  • In other words, the urbanity and the size of a community are positively correlated.
• Marriage:
  • In the case of the urban community, there is a preponderance of love marriages and inter-caste marriages.
  • One also comes across a greater number of divorces.
  • Sons and daughters enjoy considerable freedom in choosing their life partners.
• Class extremes:
  • In the words of Bogardus, “Class extremes characterize the city”.
  • A town and a city house the richest as well as the poorest of people.
  • In a  city, the slums of the poor exist alongside the palatial bungalows of the rich, amidst the apartments of the middle-class members.
  • The most civilized modes of behavior, as well as the worst racketeering, are found in the cities.
• Social heterogeneity:
  • If villages are the symbol of cultural homogeneity, the cities symbolize cultural heterogeneity. 
  • The cities are characterized by diverse people, races, and cultures.
  • There is great variety in regard to the food habits, dress habits, living conditions, religious beliefs,  cultural outlook, customs, and traditions of the urbanites.
  • Social distance:-
  • Social distance is the result of anonymity and heterogeneity.
  • Most of one’s routine social contacts in a town or city are impersonal and segmentary in character. 
  • In the urban community, social responses are incomplete and half-hearted.
  • There is an utter lack of personal involvement in the affairs of others.

In most of the Indian big cities, the dominant source of air pollution is the transport sector.

Key - Points

Air pollution:

1. Air pollution is the modification of the air by mixing with some particles and gases that are injurious to health and wealth which is undesirable
2. Air pollution is a common phenomenon nowadays with the advancement of technology
3. It is dominated in urban areas more than rural areas.

Transport sector

• The transportation sector is an important industrial sector in the economy that deals with the movement of people and products.
• These include companies such as airlines, trucking, railroads, shipping, and logistics firms, as well as those that provide transportation infrastructure.
• Passenger travel is responsible for 60% of CO₂ emissions from transportation, with freight accounting for the other 40%. In 2018, a total of 24% of global CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion came from transportation.
• In 2014, road transport was the most significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector in India, with about 90 percent of emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector mainly involved burning fossil fuels by on-road vehicles.
• Air transport is extremely polluting – but so are cars. Air traffic represents less than 2-3% of the global CO₂ emissions whereas road traffic accounts for around 10% of these direct emissions. Still, planes remain among the most polluting means of transport, together with cars.

 Hint

Causes of air pollution:

1. Vehicular pollution: transport sector is the major cause behind originating dust and smoke in city regions
2. Industrial emissions: emission of industrial waster like ashes, dust, gases, smoke, etc.
3. Thermal power plants: fly ash and black smoke after burning coal is a cause of making layer in the lower atmosphere which causes urban heat island or virtual desert situation
4. Burning of fossil fuel: burning of coal for domestic purposes and use of petrol and diesel also cause pollution
5. Construction dust: it is another source of aerosol particles
6. Waste burning: waste burning produces a huge amount of CO2 
7. Use of cheap and dirty fuels such as wood and cow-dung for cooking.

The above diagram presents the percentage share of different sources of air pollution in a city. 

The correct matching is (A) - 2, (B) - 3, (C) - 4, (D) - 1.Key Points

​The following is the correct match between List I (Concepts) and List II (Authors):

• (A) Militant and Industrial Society - 2. H Spencer
• (B) Little Community - 3. R Redfield
• (C) Mechanical and Organic Solidarity - 4. E Durkheim
• (D) Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft - 1. Tonnies

Here is a brief explanation of each concept and its author:

• Militant and Industrial Society is a concept developed by Herbert Spencer, a 19th-century English philosopher and sociologist.
  • Spencer argued that societies evolve from a state of military organization to a state of industrial organization.
  • In a militant society, the focus is on war and conquest, and the individual is subordinated to the state.
  • In an industrial society, the focus is on production and trade, and the individual is free to pursue his or her own interests.
• Little Community is a concept developed by Robert Redfield, an American anthropologist.
  • Redfield argued that a little community is a small, isolated, and self-sufficient community in which people have a strong sense of belonging and identity.
  • Little communities are often characterized by face-to-face interactions, a shared sense of values, and a strong sense of tradition.
• Mechanical and Organic Solidarity is a concept developed by Émile Durkheim, a French sociologist.
  • Durkheim argued that there are two types of solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity.
  • Mechanical solidarity is based on shared beliefs and values, and is found in small, homogeneous societies.
  • Organic solidarity is based on interdependence and specialization, and is found in large, heterogeneous societies.
• Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft is a concept developed by Ferdinand Tönnies, a German sociologist.
  • Tönnies argued that there are two types of social relationships: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft.
  • Gemeinschaft relationships are based on kinship, friendship, and neighborhood, and are characterized by a strong sense of community and belonging.
  • Gesellschaft relationships are based on contract, and are characterized by a sense of individualism and competition.

The correct answer is a caste not of a very low rank in the caste hierarchy and enjoying a modicum of land resources and numerical strength. Key Points

• M.N. Srinivas, an eminent Indian sociologist, introduced the concept of "dominant caste" in his work on social stratification in rural India. He conducted extensive fieldwork in the South Indian village of Rampura in the 1950s, and his findings led to the formulation of the concept.
• According to Srinivas, a dominant caste is not at the very top of the caste hierarchy, but it is also not at the bottom. It falls somewhere in the middle, occupying a position of relative privilege compared to lower castes.
• The dominant caste is characterized by a significant numerical strength within the local population. This large population ensures that the caste has a considerable influence in the local social and political spheres.
• Members of a dominant caste typically have a reasonable share of land resources. Landownership is a crucial factor in rural societies, as it often determines economic well-being and social status. The possession of land contributes to the dominance of a particular caste within the local community.

Additional Information

• Subaltern: The term "subaltern" refers to individuals or groups who are socially, politically, and economically marginalized. In the context of caste, subaltern groups may include those situated at the lower rungs of the caste hierarchy. The concept gained prominence through the work of postcolonial scholars, including Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
• Hierarchy and Inequality: The broader concepts of social hierarchy and inequality are fundamental to understanding the stratified nature of societies. In the context of caste, these concepts help analyze the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among different caste groups.
• Social Capital: Social capital refers to the networks, relationships, and social connections that individuals or groups possess. Dominant castes often have significant social capital, allowing them to exert influence and control over various aspects of social life.

Thus, According to Srinivas a dominant caste is a caste not of a very low rank in the caste hierarchy and enjoying a modicum of land resources and numerical strength.

The correct option is ' 31%'.

Key Points

• According to the 2011 Census in India, the share of the urban population to the total population was approximately 31%. This means that around 31% of the total population resided in urban areas.
• Urbanization refers to the process of increasing the proportion of a country's population living in urban areas.
• The percentage of urban population is a key demographic indicator that reflects the level of urban development within a country.
• As of the 2011 Census in India, approximately 69% of the total population resided in rural areas.

Additional InformationUrbanization Trends:

• Urbanization refers to the increasing proportion of a country's population living in urban areas.
• The percentage of urban population is an important demographic indicator reflecting the level of urban development within a country.

Factors Influencing Urbanization:

• Urbanization is influenced by factors such as rural-to-urban migration, natural population growth in urban areas, and government policies affecting the distribution of the population.

Implications of Urbanization:

• Urbanization has various implications for social, economic, and environmental aspects. It is often associated with increased industrialization, improved infrastructure, and changes in lifestyle.

Census Data:

• Census data is crucial for policymakers, urban planners, and researchers to understand demographic trends, plan for infrastructure development, and address the challenges associated with urbanization.

The correct answer is - Cultural diversity

Key Points

• Cultural diversity refers to the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society.
  • While urban areas are often marked by a high degree of cultural diversity due to their larger and more heterogeneous populations, rural communities generally exhibit less cultural diversity.
  • This is due to their smaller, more homogenous populations and the limited inflow of new cultural or ethnic groups.

Additional Information

• We feeling, denotes a strong sense of community and togetherness, which is prevalent in rural communities where close-knit relationships are common.
  • Members often share a strong bond, derived from common traditions, experiences, and collaborative efforts towards community well-being.
• Territory, in the context of rural communities, refers to the geographical area that is often characterized by vast landscapes, farmlands, or forests, distinct from the urban sprawl.
  • These geographical attributes shape the livelihoods, lifestyles, and social interactions of the community members.
• Likeness, signifies the similarity in lifestyle, beliefs, values, or practices among the community members, typically seen in rural areas due to shared socio-economic activities and cultural heritage.
  • Such likeness fosters a collective identity and solidarity, which are crucial for the social cohesion of the community.

The correct answer is (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (iii).

Key Points

• Jaintia
  • ​also known as Pnars and Syntengs.
  • The origin of Jaintia kingdom is still unknown.
  • Natives of west and east jaintia hills of meghalaya.
  • They are matrilineal.
  • Famous for cane, bamboo and wood carving work.
• Koya
  • ​inhabitants of Papikolla hill range, located near Sabari and Godavari rivers in Andhra Pradesh.
  • Form secong largest community in Telangana. Also found in Chattisgarh and Odisha.
  • Speak Koya bhasha which is of Dravidian origin.
  • They follow Hinduism religion.
• Tharu
  • ​Their name derived from the root word sthavir i.e. follower of Thervada Buddhism
  • They are transnational tribe i.e. they are spread across Nepal and India (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand).
  • They follow various religions at present. However majority of them follow Hinduism (94%).
  • They are famous for their ability to survive in malarial parts of Terai region.
• Rabha
  • ​are Tibeto-Burmese ethnic group.
  • Spread in Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal in India.
  • They speak Rabha, Assamese and Bengali languages.
  • Also known as Kocha.
  • They have matrilineal system.

Concentric zone theory was propounded by Ernest Burgess (Chicago School of Sociology) during early 20th century.

Key Points

• Concentric Zone Theory
  • Put forth by Ernest Burgess in 1925 based on his observation of many American cities, especially Chicago.
  • Showed a correlation between the geography, urban land use patterns and distribution of social groups.
  • Identified following zones: Central Business District, Zone of Transition, Working Class zone, Residential zone and Commuter zone.

Additional Information

• Ernest Burgess
  • ​Associated with Chicago school of Urban Sociology.
  • Co-authored textbook "Introduction to the Science of Sociology" with Robert E. Park.
    • also known as 'Bible of Sociology' for it was quite comprehensive.
    • Presented the observation and reflection of thinkers who viewed society from their distinct vantage point.
  • In "The City", he along with Robert Park and Mckenzie, conceptualised city as concentric zones.
• Robert Park
  • ​​was instrumental in formation of Chicago school of Urban Sociology.
  • coined the phrase 'Human Ecology'.
  • Applied concepts from Biology to Urban Sociology.
  • Propunded Urban Ecological perspective to understand urban life.​
• Kingsley Davis
  • ​was a demographer and sociologist of international repute.
  • Coined the terms 'overurbanization', 'population explosion' and 'zero population growth'.
  • Along with Wilbert E. Moore he wrote an article titled "Some Principles of Stratification".
  • His emphasised on 'functional pre-requisites', 'role allocation and performance'.
• William F. Whyte
  • ​pioneered ethnographic study and participant observation method in urban sociology.
  • famous for his study of street gang culture of Boston.
  • Later he published a book on this titled "Street Corner Society" (1993).
  • Another important work by him is "Participant Observer: An Autobiography" (1994).

The only tribe which claim to be vegetarian is Toda tribe from state of Tamil Nadu.

Key Points

• Toda
  • ​Dravidian ethnic group who live in southern state of Tamilnadu.
  • are known for their practice of fraternal polyandry (now abandoned) and child marraige.
  • Economic activities include Cattle Herding and Dairy work.
  • Food habits are exclusively vegetarian.
  • Do not even eat meat, fish and eggs.

Additional Information

• Gond
  • ​are among the largets tribal groups in South Asia.
  • are found all over central India (in Maharashtra and Orissa
  • Speak Gondi language.
  • Food habits include millets, rice, sacrificed animals, tobacco and liquor from Mahua tree.
• Bhil
  • ​are inhabitant of western India.
  • speak Bhili language (Indo-Aryan Language).
  • are traditionally non-vegetarian.
  • famous for their pithora paintings and ghoomar dance.
• Santhal
  • are Munda ethnic group, inhabitants of Jharkhand, West bengal, Odisha, Assam and Bihar.
  • Speak Santhali (Austro- asiatic language).
  • Food is quite simple as they dont include much spices and oil.
  • Consume non-vegetarian food on regular basis.

The correct answer is Article 17. Key Points

• Article 17 of the Constitution of India, under the chapter on Fundamental Rights, provides for the abolition of untouchability and the forbidding of its practice in any form.
• This provision reflects the commitment of the framers of the Constitution to eradicate the inhumane and discriminatory practice of untouchability.
• Article 17 not only declares untouchability illegal but also provides a legal basis for the enforcement of laws.
• Specific laws such as the Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989) have been enacted.
• Article 216: Provided that the Judges so appointed shall at no time exceed in number such maximum number as the President may, from time to time, by order fix about that Court.

Additional Information

• Article 217 provides that every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the President by a warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the State.
• Article 164: The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the governor and other ministers shall be appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The ministers shall hold office at the pleasure of the governor.

Thus, Article 17 provides the abolition of untouchability and forbidding of its practice in any form.

Concept:

Urbanisation:

• Urbanisation means the increase in the proportion population of a country that lives in urban areas.
• The most important cause of urbanisation is rural-urban migration.
• Urban centres are designated as towns, cities, million cities, conurbations and megalopoleis.

Explanation:

The positive effect of urbanization-employment:

• The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural area of developing countries consistently push the population to the urban areas.
• Employment opportunity has a very higher level of positive effects on urbanisation.
• In skilled urban regions, employment opportunities are generally greater.
• Human capital externalities, production complementarities, and consumer spillovers are the three main causes of this.

Thus, employment is the main positive effect of urbanization.

Additional InformationProblems of Urban Settlements:

• Since most cities in developing countries are unplanned, it creates severe congestion.
• In many cities, an increasing proportion of the population lives in substandard housing, slums and squatter settlements.
• Many cities in developing countries find it extremely difficult to provide the minimum required quantity of potable water and water for domestic and industrial uses.
• Cities in developing countries suffer from several social ills.

The correct answer is Harold A. Gould. Key Points

• Harold A. Gould studied "Lucknow Rickshawallas" in 1965.
• Gould is an American anthropologist and scholar of South Asia.
• His research focused on the social structure, development, and politics of India.
• Gould's study involved ethnographic research methods, such as participant observation and interviews, to understand the lives and experiences of the rickshaw pullers.
• Gould investigated the cultural practices and rituals associated with being a rickshawalla.

Additional Information

• Herbert Risley: Herbert Risley was a British ethnographer and colonial administrator who conducted extensive studies of Indian society and culture. Risley is known for his work on caste and race in India.
• Edward Shils: Edward Shils was an American sociologist and social theorist known for his interdisciplinary approach to studying society and culture. Shils' work also touched on topics such as education, religion, and the dynamics of social change.
• Joseph Schumpeter: Joseph Schumpeter was an Austrian economist who worked in the areas of entrepreneurship, innovation, and business cycles. He is best known for his concept of "creative destruction,"

Thus, Harold A. Gould studied "Lucknow Rickshawallas" in 1965.

Statement I: Communication reflects the dimension of power.

Power:

• Max Weber defined power as “the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance.
• Communication reflects the dimension of power. Communication is power and like all power, how you use it matters.
• Given the complexity of group interaction, it's short-sighted to try to understand group communication without looking at notions of power.
• Power influences how we interpret the messages of others and determines the extent to which we feel we have the right to speak up and voice our concerns and opinions to others.

Hence Statement I is true.

Statement II: Power and unethical communication are strongly interrelated.

Communication Ethics:

• It is how a person uses language, media, and journalism, and creates relationships that are guided by an individual's morals and values.
• Communication used to undermine relationships or encourage social immorality is unethical communication.
• Ethical communication builds positive relationships, while unethical communication impairs them and weakens its power of it.
• Unethical Communication o oversimplifies, exaggerates, or manipulates information in a way that encourages hierarchies of power. Power, when constructed in this sense, is oppressive and unequal, hurting trust and relationships on a broad scale.

Hence Statement II is false.

Therefore we conclude that Statement I is true but Statement II is false

Concept:

• Max Weber is a German psychologist. He earned the title of father of organizational theory.
• His focus was on rules instead of individuals and on competencies over favoritism.
• His conceptualization was on bureaucracy, structure of authority that would facilitate the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
• The term bureaucracy means the rules, regulations, processes, procedures, patterns etc that are formulated to reduce the complexity of organization's functioning.
• Weber gave the following six principles for managing an organization effectively and efficiently: 1. Division of labor, 2. Authority hierarchy, 3. Formal rules and regulations, 4. Formal selection, 5. Impersonality, 6. Career orientation.

Additional Information

• Transformational Leadership: James Mac Gregor Burns first introduced the concept of transforming leadership. It is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems. The four elements of transformational leadership is idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders.
• Humanistic management: Humanistic management is an approach to management theory based on the idea of human needs and human values. This theory believed that instead of focusing on the organisational structure, focusing on employees gives good outcome. Employees are seen not merely as economic assets valued primarily for their productivity but as people with complex needs and a desire for meaningful and varied daily tasks.
• Scientific management: Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is to improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. The main four principles of scientific management was using scientific methods, having a clear vision of tasks and responsibilities, high pay for high -performing employees, a hierarchy of authority and strict surveillance of employees.

Civil society can be understood as the people within a state who behave in a politically civilized way.

Important Points

• Civil society refers to the community of individuals and organizations that exist independently of the state and the market, and are united by shared values and interests.
• It includes a wide range of institutions and associations, such as non-governmental organizations, grassroots movements, and religious and cultural groups, that seek to promote social and political change and to advance the public good.
• Civil society plays a crucial role in democratic governance, as it provides a space for citizens to express their views, organize collective action, and hold governments and other powerful actors accountable.

Additional Information

• The concept of civil society has a long history that dates back to ancient Greece and Rome.
• J. Habermas developed a theory of communicative action that emphasized the role of civil society in creating a public sphere where citizens could engage in rational dialogue and debate about issues of common concern.
• He argued that civil society was crucial for the functioning of democracy, as it allowed citizens to hold power accountable and to participate in the process of decision-making.

According to Ethnomethodologists practical reasoning is a type of reasoning is used by the people.

Ethnomethodology is the study of how social order is produced in and through processes of social interaction. It generally seeks to provide an alternative to mainstream sociological approaches. In its most radical form, it poses a challenge to the social sciences as a whole.

Participatory research is also described as community-based.

Participatory research:

• It is usually qualitative in nature.
• Participatory research is based upon the principle of minimizing the ‘gap’ between the researcher and the research participants and increased community involvement and participation to enhance the relevance of the research findings to their needs.
• It is assumed that such involvement will increase the possibility of the community accepting the research findings and if need be, its willingness and involvement in solving the problems and issues that confront it.

Material culture consists of the physical or tangible creations that members of a society make, use, and share.

Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth.

L.H. Morgan said that the initial evolution of society was such that there was consanguineal form of marriage which took place between a brother and a sister, secondly, as the society evolved there came communal marriage, which means group marriage where several/group of sisters get married to a joint/group of men, third came to the synadyasmain- under this type, there is a single pair of marriage without the right of exclusive cohabitation, means they do not live together but one person has a relationship with another, patriarchial, where there is a marriage between one man and one woman with the exclusive right of cohabitation. The last stage is monogamous where there is a marriage between only one man and one woman.

The Indian National Satellite System or INSAT is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO.

Its purpose is to satisfy telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations.

Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Indo-Pacific Region.

It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan.

According to Dahrendrof the principal source of conflict in modern industrial societies is authority relations.

• A crucial component to Dahrendorf’s conflict theory is the idea of authority. Although it initially appears to be an individual issue and psychological, Dahrendorf argues that authority is related to positions not individuals.
• In this way, subordination and authority are products of expectation specified by society, and if those roles are not adhered to, sanctions are imposed. 
• Dahrendorf expands on this idea with the notion that roles of authority may conflict when in different positions that call for different things.

"A scientific theory of culture" is the work of malinowski.

• Malinowski reconstructed the history of human societies on the basis of items of cultures being transmitted from one culture to another.
• Evolved a geographical approach to study the growth of human society.
• He focused on groups from culture-specific areas, comparisons across cultures and described evolutionary processes of human civilization.
• Malinowski’s work was largely a product of the ideas of his predecessors.
• Leach (1957: 137) concluded his essay on Malinowski by saying that “Malinowski... was ‘in bondage’ to his predecessors; he resented their existence because he was so much indebted to them”.

Redfield has defined 'culture as a body of shared understandings'.

• Culture, according to Redfield, is "an organized body of customary understandings manifested in art and artifacts that characterizes a human group via tradition."
• The phrases "acquired by man" and "persisting via tradition" bring two fundamental aspects of culture into prominence.
• A human child, as he grows up, learns gradually from parents or from members of the group among whom he is born and among whom he lives.
• Learning reveals that culture cannot be acquired in isolation from society.

Indological perspective (G.S Ghurye): Indology literally means the study of Indian society and culture. The task of an Indologist is to study Indian society through religious text, ancient historical texts, and archaeological evidence. Culture is the central premise on which the understanding of Indian society is built.

Luis Dumont was born in Thessaloniki, in the Salonica Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. He was an associate professor at Oxford University during the 1950s and director at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) in Paris. A specialist in the cultures and societies of India, Dumont also studied western social philosophy and ideologies.

“Economic Planning is essentially a way of organizing and utilizing resources to maximum advantage in terms of defined social ends" is said by the Planning Commission of India.

Economic planning is the process through which we can make the decisions of what and how it is to be produced through controlling and managing the economic activity. It is an economic programme speculated for the development of the regional economic system.

Strain theory is a sociology and criminology theory developed in 1938 by Robert K. Merton. The theory states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals (such as the American dream), though they lack the means. So, statement 1 is correct.

When individuals feel strained, their course of action would fall between four modes of adaptation. So, statement 2 is incorrect because the correct statement is, When individuals feel strained, their course of action would fall between five modes of adaptation.

Land ownership in Agrarian Economy is unbalanced. An agrarian community is not a community where everything is equally distributed. There are people that own the land and people that work the land. Traditional gender roles are prevalent in an agrarian economy. The men are assigned to take care of the livestock and attend to the crops. The women are in charge of taking care of the children. In an agrarian society, there is an emphasis on the family unit. The Community works together, and every person has a role that supports the other roles of the community. There are also power structures and various social roles within the agrarian economy.

So, only 2 is correct.