Talcott Parsons & Structural Functionalism | Sociology Mains Optional for UPSC 2024 PDF Download

 Page 1


 
 
Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 
   
• Structural functionalism in layman terms is that this society has several structures which 
perform various functions to serve various purposes of society.  
 
• Structural functionalism is a constantly changing theory. It evolved out of earlier 
organicism and is further leading to neofunctionalism. 
 
• The most dominant form of structural functionalism is societal functionalism. 
 
• Sociological theories of structural functionalism are consensus theories and contrary to it 
are conflict theories. 
 
 
Consensus theories 
• Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on 
social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and 
orderly fashion. 
 
Conflict theories 
• conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social 
order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change 
as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow 
dominant groups. 
 
Apart from above mentioned difference the structural functionalism and conflict Theory have 
important similarities. 
• They are both macro-level theories focally concerned with large-scale social structures 
and social institutions. 
 
 
Societal functionalism 
• The primary concern of societal functionalism is the large-scale social structures and 
institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors. 
 
  
Page 2


 
 
Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 
   
• Structural functionalism in layman terms is that this society has several structures which 
perform various functions to serve various purposes of society.  
 
• Structural functionalism is a constantly changing theory. It evolved out of earlier 
organicism and is further leading to neofunctionalism. 
 
• The most dominant form of structural functionalism is societal functionalism. 
 
• Sociological theories of structural functionalism are consensus theories and contrary to it 
are conflict theories. 
 
 
Consensus theories 
• Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on 
social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and 
orderly fashion. 
 
Conflict theories 
• conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social 
order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change 
as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow 
dominant groups. 
 
Apart from above mentioned difference the structural functionalism and conflict Theory have 
important similarities. 
• They are both macro-level theories focally concerned with large-scale social structures 
and social institutions. 
 
 
Societal functionalism 
• The primary concern of societal functionalism is the large-scale social structures and 
institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors. 
 
  
 
 
The Functional Theory of Stratification and Its Critics 
• The best theory on stratification is given by Davis and Moore. 
 
• They regarded social stratification as both universal and functional necessity. 
 
• It is unconsciously evolved and every society does and must develop it in order to survive. 
 
• So, no society is unstratified or classless. 
 
• They also viewed a stratification system as a structure, pointing out that stratification 
refers not to the individuals in the stratification system but rather to a system of 
positions. 
 
• They focused on how certain positions come to carry with them different degrees of 
prestige, not on how individuals come to occupy certain positions. 
 
• The major functional issue is how a society motivates and places people in their “proper” 
positions in the stratification system. This is reducible to two problems. First, how does a 
society instill in the “proper” individuals the desire to fill certain positions? Second, once 
people are in the right positions, how does society then instill in them the desire to fulfill 
the requirements of those positions?. 
 
• Proper social placement in society is a problem for three basic reasons: 
• Some positions are more pleasant to occupy than others.  
• Some positions are more important to the survival of society than others.  
• Different social positions require different abilities and talents. 
 
Although these issues apply to all social positions, Davis and Moore were concerned with the 
functionally more important positions in society.  
 
The positions that rank high within the stratification system are presumed to be those that are 
less pleasant to occupy but more important to the survival of society and that require the 
greatest ability and talent.  
 
In addition, society must attach sufficient rewards to these positions so that enough people will 
seek to occupy them and the individuals who do come to occupy them will work diligently. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Page 3


 
 
Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 
   
• Structural functionalism in layman terms is that this society has several structures which 
perform various functions to serve various purposes of society.  
 
• Structural functionalism is a constantly changing theory. It evolved out of earlier 
organicism and is further leading to neofunctionalism. 
 
• The most dominant form of structural functionalism is societal functionalism. 
 
• Sociological theories of structural functionalism are consensus theories and contrary to it 
are conflict theories. 
 
 
Consensus theories 
• Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on 
social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and 
orderly fashion. 
 
Conflict theories 
• conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social 
order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change 
as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow 
dominant groups. 
 
Apart from above mentioned difference the structural functionalism and conflict Theory have 
important similarities. 
• They are both macro-level theories focally concerned with large-scale social structures 
and social institutions. 
 
 
Societal functionalism 
• The primary concern of societal functionalism is the large-scale social structures and 
institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors. 
 
  
 
 
The Functional Theory of Stratification and Its Critics 
• The best theory on stratification is given by Davis and Moore. 
 
• They regarded social stratification as both universal and functional necessity. 
 
• It is unconsciously evolved and every society does and must develop it in order to survive. 
 
• So, no society is unstratified or classless. 
 
• They also viewed a stratification system as a structure, pointing out that stratification 
refers not to the individuals in the stratification system but rather to a system of 
positions. 
 
• They focused on how certain positions come to carry with them different degrees of 
prestige, not on how individuals come to occupy certain positions. 
 
• The major functional issue is how a society motivates and places people in their “proper” 
positions in the stratification system. This is reducible to two problems. First, how does a 
society instill in the “proper” individuals the desire to fill certain positions? Second, once 
people are in the right positions, how does society then instill in them the desire to fulfill 
the requirements of those positions?. 
 
• Proper social placement in society is a problem for three basic reasons: 
• Some positions are more pleasant to occupy than others.  
• Some positions are more important to the survival of society than others.  
• Different social positions require different abilities and talents. 
 
Although these issues apply to all social positions, Davis and Moore were concerned with the 
functionally more important positions in society.  
 
The positions that rank high within the stratification system are presumed to be those that are 
less pleasant to occupy but more important to the survival of society and that require the 
greatest ability and talent.  
 
In addition, society must attach sufficient rewards to these positions so that enough people will 
seek to occupy them and the individuals who do come to occupy them will work diligently. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
Criticism of stratification 
• One basic criticism is that the functional theory of stratification simply perpetuates the 
privileged position of those people who already have power, prestige, and money. It does 
this by arguing that such people deserve their rewards; indeed, they need to be offered 
such rewards for the good of society. 
 
• The functional theory also can be criticized for assuming that simply because a stratified 
social structure existed in the past; it must continue to exist in the future. It is possible 
that future societies will be organized in other, nonstratified ways. 
 
• Further the functional position of a work is not a very efficient way to determine its 
importance in society. Are garbage collectors really any less important to the survival of 
society than advertising executives? Despite the lower pay and prestige of the garbage 
collectors, they actually may be more important to the survival of the society.  
 
Even in cases where it could be said that one position serves a more important function 
for society, the greater rewards do not necessarily accrue to the more important position. 
Nurses may be much more important to society than movie stars are, but nurses have far 
less power, prestige, and income than movie stars have. 
 
• Is there really a scarcity of people capable of filling high-level positions? In fact, many 
people are prevented from obtaining the training they need to achieve prestigious 
positions even though they have the ability. In the medical profession, for example, there 
is a persistent effort to limit the number of practicing doctors.  
 
In general, many able people never get a chance to show that they can handle high-
ranking positions even though there is a clear need for them and their contributions. 
Those in high-ranking positions have a vested interest in keeping their own numbers 
small and their power and income high. 
 
• Finally, it can be argued that we do not have to offer people power, prestige, and income 
to get them to want to occupy high-level positions. People can be equally motivated by 
the satisfaction of doing a job well or by the opportunity to be of service to others. 
 
  
Page 4


 
 
Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 
   
• Structural functionalism in layman terms is that this society has several structures which 
perform various functions to serve various purposes of society.  
 
• Structural functionalism is a constantly changing theory. It evolved out of earlier 
organicism and is further leading to neofunctionalism. 
 
• The most dominant form of structural functionalism is societal functionalism. 
 
• Sociological theories of structural functionalism are consensus theories and contrary to it 
are conflict theories. 
 
 
Consensus theories 
• Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on 
social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and 
orderly fashion. 
 
Conflict theories 
• conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social 
order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change 
as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow 
dominant groups. 
 
Apart from above mentioned difference the structural functionalism and conflict Theory have 
important similarities. 
• They are both macro-level theories focally concerned with large-scale social structures 
and social institutions. 
 
 
Societal functionalism 
• The primary concern of societal functionalism is the large-scale social structures and 
institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors. 
 
  
 
 
The Functional Theory of Stratification and Its Critics 
• The best theory on stratification is given by Davis and Moore. 
 
• They regarded social stratification as both universal and functional necessity. 
 
• It is unconsciously evolved and every society does and must develop it in order to survive. 
 
• So, no society is unstratified or classless. 
 
• They also viewed a stratification system as a structure, pointing out that stratification 
refers not to the individuals in the stratification system but rather to a system of 
positions. 
 
• They focused on how certain positions come to carry with them different degrees of 
prestige, not on how individuals come to occupy certain positions. 
 
• The major functional issue is how a society motivates and places people in their “proper” 
positions in the stratification system. This is reducible to two problems. First, how does a 
society instill in the “proper” individuals the desire to fill certain positions? Second, once 
people are in the right positions, how does society then instill in them the desire to fulfill 
the requirements of those positions?. 
 
• Proper social placement in society is a problem for three basic reasons: 
• Some positions are more pleasant to occupy than others.  
• Some positions are more important to the survival of society than others.  
• Different social positions require different abilities and talents. 
 
Although these issues apply to all social positions, Davis and Moore were concerned with the 
functionally more important positions in society.  
 
The positions that rank high within the stratification system are presumed to be those that are 
less pleasant to occupy but more important to the survival of society and that require the 
greatest ability and talent.  
 
In addition, society must attach sufficient rewards to these positions so that enough people will 
seek to occupy them and the individuals who do come to occupy them will work diligently. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
Criticism of stratification 
• One basic criticism is that the functional theory of stratification simply perpetuates the 
privileged position of those people who already have power, prestige, and money. It does 
this by arguing that such people deserve their rewards; indeed, they need to be offered 
such rewards for the good of society. 
 
• The functional theory also can be criticized for assuming that simply because a stratified 
social structure existed in the past; it must continue to exist in the future. It is possible 
that future societies will be organized in other, nonstratified ways. 
 
• Further the functional position of a work is not a very efficient way to determine its 
importance in society. Are garbage collectors really any less important to the survival of 
society than advertising executives? Despite the lower pay and prestige of the garbage 
collectors, they actually may be more important to the survival of the society.  
 
Even in cases where it could be said that one position serves a more important function 
for society, the greater rewards do not necessarily accrue to the more important position. 
Nurses may be much more important to society than movie stars are, but nurses have far 
less power, prestige, and income than movie stars have. 
 
• Is there really a scarcity of people capable of filling high-level positions? In fact, many 
people are prevented from obtaining the training they need to achieve prestigious 
positions even though they have the ability. In the medical profession, for example, there 
is a persistent effort to limit the number of practicing doctors.  
 
In general, many able people never get a chance to show that they can handle high-
ranking positions even though there is a clear need for them and their contributions. 
Those in high-ranking positions have a vested interest in keeping their own numbers 
small and their power and income high. 
 
• Finally, it can be argued that we do not have to offer people power, prestige, and income 
to get them to want to occupy high-level positions. People can be equally motivated by 
the satisfaction of doing a job well or by the opportunity to be of service to others. 
 
  
 
 
Talcott Parsons’s Structural functionalism 
 
? His theory is based on AGIL scheme. 
? According to him A function is “a complex of activities directed towards meeting a need 
or needs of the system” 
 
In order to survive, a system must perform these four functions: 
1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to 
its environment and adapt the environment to its needs. 
2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary goals. 
3. Integration: A system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It also 
must manage the relationship among the other three functional imperatives (A, G, L). 
4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain, and renew both the 
motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain that 
motivation. 
 
ACTION SYSTEM:     
 
Let’s see how Parson uses AGIL  in action system: 
 
 
? The behavioral organism is the action system that handles the adaptation function by 
adjusting to and transforming the external world.  
? The personality system performs the goal-attainment function by defining system goals 
and mobilizing resources to attain them.  
? The social system copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts.  
? Finally, the cultural system performs the latency function by providing actors with the 
norms and values that motivate them for action. 
? These four action tools do not exist in real world but are analytical tools for analyzing the 
real world. 
 
 
Page 5


 
 
Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 
   
• Structural functionalism in layman terms is that this society has several structures which 
perform various functions to serve various purposes of society.  
 
• Structural functionalism is a constantly changing theory. It evolved out of earlier 
organicism and is further leading to neofunctionalism. 
 
• The most dominant form of structural functionalism is societal functionalism. 
 
• Sociological theories of structural functionalism are consensus theories and contrary to it 
are conflict theories. 
 
 
Consensus theories 
• Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on 
social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and 
orderly fashion. 
 
Conflict theories 
• conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social 
order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change 
as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow 
dominant groups. 
 
Apart from above mentioned difference the structural functionalism and conflict Theory have 
important similarities. 
• They are both macro-level theories focally concerned with large-scale social structures 
and social institutions. 
 
 
Societal functionalism 
• The primary concern of societal functionalism is the large-scale social structures and 
institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors. 
 
  
 
 
The Functional Theory of Stratification and Its Critics 
• The best theory on stratification is given by Davis and Moore. 
 
• They regarded social stratification as both universal and functional necessity. 
 
• It is unconsciously evolved and every society does and must develop it in order to survive. 
 
• So, no society is unstratified or classless. 
 
• They also viewed a stratification system as a structure, pointing out that stratification 
refers not to the individuals in the stratification system but rather to a system of 
positions. 
 
• They focused on how certain positions come to carry with them different degrees of 
prestige, not on how individuals come to occupy certain positions. 
 
• The major functional issue is how a society motivates and places people in their “proper” 
positions in the stratification system. This is reducible to two problems. First, how does a 
society instill in the “proper” individuals the desire to fill certain positions? Second, once 
people are in the right positions, how does society then instill in them the desire to fulfill 
the requirements of those positions?. 
 
• Proper social placement in society is a problem for three basic reasons: 
• Some positions are more pleasant to occupy than others.  
• Some positions are more important to the survival of society than others.  
• Different social positions require different abilities and talents. 
 
Although these issues apply to all social positions, Davis and Moore were concerned with the 
functionally more important positions in society.  
 
The positions that rank high within the stratification system are presumed to be those that are 
less pleasant to occupy but more important to the survival of society and that require the 
greatest ability and talent.  
 
In addition, society must attach sufficient rewards to these positions so that enough people will 
seek to occupy them and the individuals who do come to occupy them will work diligently. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
Criticism of stratification 
• One basic criticism is that the functional theory of stratification simply perpetuates the 
privileged position of those people who already have power, prestige, and money. It does 
this by arguing that such people deserve their rewards; indeed, they need to be offered 
such rewards for the good of society. 
 
• The functional theory also can be criticized for assuming that simply because a stratified 
social structure existed in the past; it must continue to exist in the future. It is possible 
that future societies will be organized in other, nonstratified ways. 
 
• Further the functional position of a work is not a very efficient way to determine its 
importance in society. Are garbage collectors really any less important to the survival of 
society than advertising executives? Despite the lower pay and prestige of the garbage 
collectors, they actually may be more important to the survival of the society.  
 
Even in cases where it could be said that one position serves a more important function 
for society, the greater rewards do not necessarily accrue to the more important position. 
Nurses may be much more important to society than movie stars are, but nurses have far 
less power, prestige, and income than movie stars have. 
 
• Is there really a scarcity of people capable of filling high-level positions? In fact, many 
people are prevented from obtaining the training they need to achieve prestigious 
positions even though they have the ability. In the medical profession, for example, there 
is a persistent effort to limit the number of practicing doctors.  
 
In general, many able people never get a chance to show that they can handle high-
ranking positions even though there is a clear need for them and their contributions. 
Those in high-ranking positions have a vested interest in keeping their own numbers 
small and their power and income high. 
 
• Finally, it can be argued that we do not have to offer people power, prestige, and income 
to get them to want to occupy high-level positions. People can be equally motivated by 
the satisfaction of doing a job well or by the opportunity to be of service to others. 
 
  
 
 
Talcott Parsons’s Structural functionalism 
 
? His theory is based on AGIL scheme. 
? According to him A function is “a complex of activities directed towards meeting a need 
or needs of the system” 
 
In order to survive, a system must perform these four functions: 
1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to 
its environment and adapt the environment to its needs. 
2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary goals. 
3. Integration: A system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It also 
must manage the relationship among the other three functional imperatives (A, G, L). 
4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain, and renew both the 
motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain that 
motivation. 
 
ACTION SYSTEM:     
 
Let’s see how Parson uses AGIL  in action system: 
 
 
? The behavioral organism is the action system that handles the adaptation function by 
adjusting to and transforming the external world.  
? The personality system performs the goal-attainment function by defining system goals 
and mobilizing resources to attain them.  
? The social system copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts.  
? Finally, the cultural system performs the latency function by providing actors with the 
norms and values that motivate them for action. 
? These four action tools do not exist in real world but are analytical tools for analyzing the 
real world. 
 
 
 
 
 
Parsons’s action schema 
 
 
• Parsons had a clear notion of “levels” of social analysis as well as their interrelationship. 
• Each of the lower levels provides the conditions, the energy, needed for the higher levels.  
•  The higher levels control those below them in the hierarchy. 
• In terms of the environments of the action system, the lowest level, the physical and 
organic environment, involves the nonsymbolic aspects of the human body, its anatomy 
and physiology. 
• The highest level, ultimate reality, has, “a metaphysical flavor,” or the universal tendency 
for societies to address symbolically the uncertainties, concerns, and tragedies of human 
existence that challenge the meaningfulness of social organization. 
• While studying Talcott’s action action we encounter the problem of order but Talcott has 
a  following set of assumptions to answer this problem: 
1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts. 
2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.  
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of change. 
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form that the other parts can 
take. 
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments. 
6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes necessary for a given state 
of equilibrium of a system.  
             7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the maintenance of boundaries and of 
the relationships of  
             parts to the whole, control of environment variations, and control of tendencies to change 
the system from within.