Combating Terrorism - Protecting by Righteousness | Famous Books for UPSC Exam (Summary & Tests) PDF Download

 Page 1


1.1 In its Third Report, on “Crisis Management”, the Commission had stated that crisis
situations caused by hostile elements like terrorists and extremists involving taking of hostages,
hijacking of airplanes or severely disrupting public order and administration would be dealt
with in its subsequent reports.
1.2 In its Fifth Report, on “Public Order”, the Commission observed  that in view of the
growing incidence of terrorist violence in the country there is an emerging consensus in India
that a strong legal framework should be created to deal with terrorism.  The Commission
pointed out that there is a “felt need to strengthen the hands of security forces in the fight against
terrorism even as human rights and constitutional values are protected”
1
.  Accordingly , the Commission
had decided that it would deal with issues pertaining to terrorism in a separate report
particularly since terrorism today has transcended pure crisis management or public order
issues and is enmeshed in an intricate web of organized crime, illegal financial transfers and
trafficking in arms and drugs, which poses a grave threat to national security .  The existence
of sleeper cells, the spread of modern communications and the increasing use of modern
weapons, technology and tactics have enabled the merchants of terror to spread their tentacles
far and wide subjecting the entire country to their nefarious designs. A multi-cultural, liberal
and democratic country like India, given its geopolitical situation, is particularly vulnerable
to acts of terror with statistics showing that Indians have suffered the maximum casualties at
the hands of terrorists. The menace of terrorism is thus an unprecedented threat which requires
extraordinary and multi-pronged action by all organs of government and society .
1.3 This Report on capacity building to combat terrorism has been prepared accordingly
and comprises seven chapters:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : T errorism - T ypes, Genesis and Definition
Chapter 3 : T errorism in India
Chapter 4 : Dealing with T errorism: Legal Framework
Chapter 5 : Measures against Financing of T errorism
INTRODUCTION 1
LeT Laskar-e-T ayyaba
LOC Line of Control
LTTE Liberation Tigers of T amil Eelam
L WE Left Wing Extremism
MCC Maoist Communist Centre
MLA Member of Legislative Assembly
MOS Minister of State
MP Member of Parliament
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBC Nuclear Biological and Chemical
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
POK Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
POTA Prevention of T errorism Act
PWG People’s W ar Group
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
SIMI Students’ Islamic Movement of India
SVPNPA Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
TADA T errorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
UK United Kingdom
ULPA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
ULPAA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act
UN United Nations
US United States
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD W eapons of Mass Destruction
xii
Page 2


1.1 In its Third Report, on “Crisis Management”, the Commission had stated that crisis
situations caused by hostile elements like terrorists and extremists involving taking of hostages,
hijacking of airplanes or severely disrupting public order and administration would be dealt
with in its subsequent reports.
1.2 In its Fifth Report, on “Public Order”, the Commission observed  that in view of the
growing incidence of terrorist violence in the country there is an emerging consensus in India
that a strong legal framework should be created to deal with terrorism.  The Commission
pointed out that there is a “felt need to strengthen the hands of security forces in the fight against
terrorism even as human rights and constitutional values are protected”
1
.  Accordingly , the Commission
had decided that it would deal with issues pertaining to terrorism in a separate report
particularly since terrorism today has transcended pure crisis management or public order
issues and is enmeshed in an intricate web of organized crime, illegal financial transfers and
trafficking in arms and drugs, which poses a grave threat to national security .  The existence
of sleeper cells, the spread of modern communications and the increasing use of modern
weapons, technology and tactics have enabled the merchants of terror to spread their tentacles
far and wide subjecting the entire country to their nefarious designs. A multi-cultural, liberal
and democratic country like India, given its geopolitical situation, is particularly vulnerable
to acts of terror with statistics showing that Indians have suffered the maximum casualties at
the hands of terrorists. The menace of terrorism is thus an unprecedented threat which requires
extraordinary and multi-pronged action by all organs of government and society .
1.3 This Report on capacity building to combat terrorism has been prepared accordingly
and comprises seven chapters:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : T errorism - T ypes, Genesis and Definition
Chapter 3 : T errorism in India
Chapter 4 : Dealing with T errorism: Legal Framework
Chapter 5 : Measures against Financing of T errorism
INTRODUCTION 1
LeT Laskar-e-T ayyaba
LOC Line of Control
LTTE Liberation Tigers of T amil Eelam
L WE Left Wing Extremism
MCC Maoist Communist Centre
MLA Member of Legislative Assembly
MOS Minister of State
MP Member of Parliament
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBC Nuclear Biological and Chemical
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
POK Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
POTA Prevention of T errorism Act
PWG People’s W ar Group
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
SIMI Students’ Islamic Movement of India
SVPNPA Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
TADA T errorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
UK United Kingdom
ULPA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
ULPAA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act
UN United Nations
US United States
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD W eapons of Mass Destruction
xii 3
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
3
Page 3


1.1 In its Third Report, on “Crisis Management”, the Commission had stated that crisis
situations caused by hostile elements like terrorists and extremists involving taking of hostages,
hijacking of airplanes or severely disrupting public order and administration would be dealt
with in its subsequent reports.
1.2 In its Fifth Report, on “Public Order”, the Commission observed  that in view of the
growing incidence of terrorist violence in the country there is an emerging consensus in India
that a strong legal framework should be created to deal with terrorism.  The Commission
pointed out that there is a “felt need to strengthen the hands of security forces in the fight against
terrorism even as human rights and constitutional values are protected”
1
.  Accordingly , the Commission
had decided that it would deal with issues pertaining to terrorism in a separate report
particularly since terrorism today has transcended pure crisis management or public order
issues and is enmeshed in an intricate web of organized crime, illegal financial transfers and
trafficking in arms and drugs, which poses a grave threat to national security .  The existence
of sleeper cells, the spread of modern communications and the increasing use of modern
weapons, technology and tactics have enabled the merchants of terror to spread their tentacles
far and wide subjecting the entire country to their nefarious designs. A multi-cultural, liberal
and democratic country like India, given its geopolitical situation, is particularly vulnerable
to acts of terror with statistics showing that Indians have suffered the maximum casualties at
the hands of terrorists. The menace of terrorism is thus an unprecedented threat which requires
extraordinary and multi-pronged action by all organs of government and society .
1.3 This Report on capacity building to combat terrorism has been prepared accordingly
and comprises seven chapters:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : T errorism - T ypes, Genesis and Definition
Chapter 3 : T errorism in India
Chapter 4 : Dealing with T errorism: Legal Framework
Chapter 5 : Measures against Financing of T errorism
INTRODUCTION 1
LeT Laskar-e-T ayyaba
LOC Line of Control
LTTE Liberation Tigers of T amil Eelam
L WE Left Wing Extremism
MCC Maoist Communist Centre
MLA Member of Legislative Assembly
MOS Minister of State
MP Member of Parliament
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBC Nuclear Biological and Chemical
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
POK Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
POTA Prevention of T errorism Act
PWG People’s W ar Group
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
SIMI Students’ Islamic Movement of India
SVPNPA Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
TADA T errorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
UK United Kingdom
ULPA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
ULPAA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act
UN United Nations
US United States
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD W eapons of Mass Destruction
xii 3
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
3 2
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
Page 4


1.1 In its Third Report, on “Crisis Management”, the Commission had stated that crisis
situations caused by hostile elements like terrorists and extremists involving taking of hostages,
hijacking of airplanes or severely disrupting public order and administration would be dealt
with in its subsequent reports.
1.2 In its Fifth Report, on “Public Order”, the Commission observed  that in view of the
growing incidence of terrorist violence in the country there is an emerging consensus in India
that a strong legal framework should be created to deal with terrorism.  The Commission
pointed out that there is a “felt need to strengthen the hands of security forces in the fight against
terrorism even as human rights and constitutional values are protected”
1
.  Accordingly , the Commission
had decided that it would deal with issues pertaining to terrorism in a separate report
particularly since terrorism today has transcended pure crisis management or public order
issues and is enmeshed in an intricate web of organized crime, illegal financial transfers and
trafficking in arms and drugs, which poses a grave threat to national security .  The existence
of sleeper cells, the spread of modern communications and the increasing use of modern
weapons, technology and tactics have enabled the merchants of terror to spread their tentacles
far and wide subjecting the entire country to their nefarious designs. A multi-cultural, liberal
and democratic country like India, given its geopolitical situation, is particularly vulnerable
to acts of terror with statistics showing that Indians have suffered the maximum casualties at
the hands of terrorists. The menace of terrorism is thus an unprecedented threat which requires
extraordinary and multi-pronged action by all organs of government and society .
1.3 This Report on capacity building to combat terrorism has been prepared accordingly
and comprises seven chapters:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : T errorism - T ypes, Genesis and Definition
Chapter 3 : T errorism in India
Chapter 4 : Dealing with T errorism: Legal Framework
Chapter 5 : Measures against Financing of T errorism
INTRODUCTION 1
LeT Laskar-e-T ayyaba
LOC Line of Control
LTTE Liberation Tigers of T amil Eelam
L WE Left Wing Extremism
MCC Maoist Communist Centre
MLA Member of Legislative Assembly
MOS Minister of State
MP Member of Parliament
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBC Nuclear Biological and Chemical
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
POK Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
POTA Prevention of T errorism Act
PWG People’s W ar Group
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
SIMI Students’ Islamic Movement of India
SVPNPA Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
TADA T errorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
UK United Kingdom
ULPA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
ULPAA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act
UN United Nations
US United States
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD W eapons of Mass Destruction
xii 3
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
3 2
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
5
of the T alibans during the anti-Soviet militant movement was made possible largely because
of extensive patronage by USA’s CIA and Pakistan’s ISI, with billions of dollars in cash
and in kind having been poured into the region via Pakistan. For a few years in the recent
past, it looked as though the Taliban was effectively decimated in the wake of the ‘war
against terror’ waged in Afghanistan by the USA in collaboration with its allies. But
during the past couple of years’ the T aliban appears to be fast regaining their lost ground.
This is already having serious security implications not only in Afghanistan but also in
Pakistan and India.
2.2 T ypes of T errorism
2.2.1 T errorists are motivated by different goals and objectives. Depending on the objectives
of the group/groups, the nature of terrorism also differs. The major types of terrorist operations
commonly identified globally include:
2.2.2 Ethno-Nationalist T errorism
Terrorism motivated by ethno-nationalist and separatist aspirations became prominent
only after the Second W orld W ar and dominated the terrorist agenda around the world for
more than 50 years until religious terrorism came to occupy the centre stage. Ethnic terrorism
can be defined, according to Daniel Byman
2
, as deliberate violence by a subnational ethnic
group to advance its cause. Such violence usually focuses either on the creation of a separate
State or on the elevation of the status of one ethnic group over others. Tamil Nationalist
groups in Sri Lanka and insurgent groups in North East India are examples of ethno-
nationalist terrorist activities.
2.2.3 Religious T errorism
Present-day terrorist activities around the world are motivated largely by religious imperatives.
According to Hoffman
3
, the practitioners of terrorism motivated either in whole or in part by
a religious imperative consider violence as a divine duty or a sacramental act. It embraces
different means of legitimisation and justification compared to other terrorist groups, and
these distinguishing factors make religious terrorism more destructive in nature.
2.2.4 Ideology Oriented T errorism
Any ideology can be used to support the use of violence and terrorism. Ideology oriented
terrorism is generally classified into two: Left-wing and Right-wing terrorism.
(a) Left-wing Terrorism-Violence against the ruling elite mostly by the peasant class
motivated by what are called leftist ideologies have occurred time and again in history .
However, the ideological basis for the left and subsequent violent movements was
provided by the writings of Marx and Engels. This was supported by the writings and
speeches of later communists like Lenin and Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). Leftist
ideologies believe that all the existing social relations and state structures in the capitalist
society are exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means
is essential. Examples of leftist ideologies that have resorted to the use of terror are
numerous. These include; the Red Army Faction or Baader Meinhof Gang in the
former West Germany, the Red Brigades in Italy, the 17 November Movement in
Greece, the Shining Path of Peru, Peoples Revolutionary Army and the Motoneros of
Argentina. The Maoist groups in India and Nepal are the most easily identifiable
groups closer home.
(b) Right-wing T errorism- Right-wing groups generally seek to maintain the status-quo
or to return to some past situation that they feel should have been conserved. Sometimes,
groups espousing rightist ideologies might assume ethnic/racist character too. They
may force the government to acquire a territory or to intervene to protect the rights of
an ‘oppressed’ minority in a neighboring country (i.e : the Nazi Party in Germany).
Violence against migrant communities also comes under this category of terrorist
violence. It is to be noted here that religion can play a supportive role to rightist
violence. Examples of these are: Nazism in Germany , Fascists in Italy , white supremacy
movements in the US known as Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the Green Jackets of Denmark
in the 1980s etc.
2.2.5 State-sponsored T errorism
2.2.5.1 State-sponsored terrorism or warfare by proxy is as old as the history of military
conflict. W alter Laqueur notes that such established practices existed in ancient times; in the
Oriental empires, in Rome and Byzantium, in Asia and Europe.
4
 However, state-sponsored
terrorism on a massive scale reappeared in international politics in the 1960s and 1970s, and
today along with religious terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism has considerably altered the
nature of terrorist activities around the world.
2.2.5.2 In recent times, some countries have embraced terrorism as a deliberate instrument of
foreign policy . One distinction of state sponsored terrorism from other forms of terrorist activity
is that it is initiated to obtain certain clearly defined foreign policy objectives rather than
grabbing media attention or targeting the potential audience. Given this character, it operates
under fewer constraints and causes greater casualty on the target (Hoffman, 1998). In a cost-
benefit analysis, state-sponsored terrorism is the most effective means of terrorism from the
perspective of the perpetrator.
Combatting T errorism T errorism – T ypes, Genesis and Definition
4
Source: Refer to Annexure II of this Report.
Page 5


1.1 In its Third Report, on “Crisis Management”, the Commission had stated that crisis
situations caused by hostile elements like terrorists and extremists involving taking of hostages,
hijacking of airplanes or severely disrupting public order and administration would be dealt
with in its subsequent reports.
1.2 In its Fifth Report, on “Public Order”, the Commission observed  that in view of the
growing incidence of terrorist violence in the country there is an emerging consensus in India
that a strong legal framework should be created to deal with terrorism.  The Commission
pointed out that there is a “felt need to strengthen the hands of security forces in the fight against
terrorism even as human rights and constitutional values are protected”
1
.  Accordingly , the Commission
had decided that it would deal with issues pertaining to terrorism in a separate report
particularly since terrorism today has transcended pure crisis management or public order
issues and is enmeshed in an intricate web of organized crime, illegal financial transfers and
trafficking in arms and drugs, which poses a grave threat to national security .  The existence
of sleeper cells, the spread of modern communications and the increasing use of modern
weapons, technology and tactics have enabled the merchants of terror to spread their tentacles
far and wide subjecting the entire country to their nefarious designs. A multi-cultural, liberal
and democratic country like India, given its geopolitical situation, is particularly vulnerable
to acts of terror with statistics showing that Indians have suffered the maximum casualties at
the hands of terrorists. The menace of terrorism is thus an unprecedented threat which requires
extraordinary and multi-pronged action by all organs of government and society .
1.3 This Report on capacity building to combat terrorism has been prepared accordingly
and comprises seven chapters:
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : T errorism - T ypes, Genesis and Definition
Chapter 3 : T errorism in India
Chapter 4 : Dealing with T errorism: Legal Framework
Chapter 5 : Measures against Financing of T errorism
INTRODUCTION 1
LeT Laskar-e-T ayyaba
LOC Line of Control
LTTE Liberation Tigers of T amil Eelam
L WE Left Wing Extremism
MCC Maoist Communist Centre
MLA Member of Legislative Assembly
MOS Minister of State
MP Member of Parliament
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBC Nuclear Biological and Chemical
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
POK Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
POTA Prevention of T errorism Act
PWG People’s W ar Group
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
SIMI Students’ Islamic Movement of India
SVPNPA Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy
TADA T errorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act
UK United Kingdom
ULPA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act
ULPAA Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act
UN United Nations
US United States
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WMD W eapons of Mass Destruction
xii 3
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
3 2
Combatting T errorism
Chapter 6 : Institutional and Administrative Measures
Chapter 7 : Civil Society , Media and Citizens
1.4 The Commission has benefited greatly from interactions with a large number of experts
both within the Government and outside while preparing this Report. The Commission is
grateful to Hon’ble Mr Justice  R.C. Lahoti, former Chief Justice of India, for his valuable
suggestions. A workshop was organised jointly with Sardar V allabhbhai Patel National Police
Academy, Hyderabad on ‘Public Order’, and one working group examined the measures to
deal with terrorism (Annexure-I).  The Commission discussed issues related to terrorism with
the State Governments during its visit to the States. The Commission is grateful for the
considerable assistance provided by Shri P .K.H. Tharakan, former Secretary (R&AW) who
worked as Advisor with the Commission and prepared a well researched paper.  The
Commission is grateful to Shri P .C. Haldar, Director, IB; Shri Vijay Shanker, Director, CBI;
and Shri K.T .S. T ulsi, eminent advocate for valuable inputs. The Commission is also grateful
to Shri Shastri Ramachandran, Associate Editor, The Tribune for his contribution on the
‘Role of Media in dealing with terrorism’.
2.1 History
2.1.1 T errorism is as old as the Roman Empire and it existed in some form or the other, be it
the Zealots in Judea or the Assassins in the 11
th
 to 13
th
 century with religion being a strong
motivating factor behind terrorist activities until the French Revolution. In fact, the term
“terrorism” originated from the Reign of T error (Regime de la T erreur) of 1793-94.
2.1.2 Following the Second W orld W ar, there was a shift in the nature and locale of terrorist
activities around the world. The focus of terrorist activities shifted from Europe to the Middle
East, Africa and Asia with the emergence of various nationalistic and anti-colonial groups in
these regions, notably in Israel, Kenya, Cyprus, Algeria, Palestine and Malaya. The first
major act of terror, considered as the most deadly and spectacular terrorist operation till then,
was carried out by the Jewish Irgun (then led by Menachem Begin) when the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed in July 1946, killing nearly a hundred people.
2.1.3 Left wing extremism, based on their belief that terrorism is the only strategy of
revolutionary movement for the weak in the Third W orld (e.g. in Malaysia, Vietnam etc.),
surfaced in Europe and elsewhere as well, especially since the late 1950s. The Red Army
Faction in W est Germany (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Group), the Red Army Faction
of Japan, the Wheathermen and Black Panthers in the USA, the T upamaros of Uruguay and
several other left-extremist terrorist groups sprang up during the 1960s in different parts of
the world, including Naxalites and Maoists in India.
2.1.4 The Irish Republican Army/IRA, traced its origin to the period around 1919-21. Its
later incarnation, known as the Provisional Irish Republican Army was formed in1969 and
has carried out extensive terrorist attacks not only in Northern Ireland but in England as
well. A historic peace settlement was arrived at through the Good Friday Agreement of 1998
between the contending Irish groups and the UK Government.
2.1.5 International terrorism today is marked by the large number of transnational terrorist
groups, mostly motivated by the Islamist fundamentalist ideology with Osama bin Laden’s
Al-Qaeda at the forefront, and the Taliban in Afghanistan as its close ally. The rapid rise
TERRORISM – TYPES, GENESIS AND DEFINITION 2
5
of the T alibans during the anti-Soviet militant movement was made possible largely because
of extensive patronage by USA’s CIA and Pakistan’s ISI, with billions of dollars in cash
and in kind having been poured into the region via Pakistan. For a few years in the recent
past, it looked as though the Taliban was effectively decimated in the wake of the ‘war
against terror’ waged in Afghanistan by the USA in collaboration with its allies. But
during the past couple of years’ the T aliban appears to be fast regaining their lost ground.
This is already having serious security implications not only in Afghanistan but also in
Pakistan and India.
2.2 T ypes of T errorism
2.2.1 T errorists are motivated by different goals and objectives. Depending on the objectives
of the group/groups, the nature of terrorism also differs. The major types of terrorist operations
commonly identified globally include:
2.2.2 Ethno-Nationalist T errorism
Terrorism motivated by ethno-nationalist and separatist aspirations became prominent
only after the Second W orld W ar and dominated the terrorist agenda around the world for
more than 50 years until religious terrorism came to occupy the centre stage. Ethnic terrorism
can be defined, according to Daniel Byman
2
, as deliberate violence by a subnational ethnic
group to advance its cause. Such violence usually focuses either on the creation of a separate
State or on the elevation of the status of one ethnic group over others. Tamil Nationalist
groups in Sri Lanka and insurgent groups in North East India are examples of ethno-
nationalist terrorist activities.
2.2.3 Religious T errorism
Present-day terrorist activities around the world are motivated largely by religious imperatives.
According to Hoffman
3
, the practitioners of terrorism motivated either in whole or in part by
a religious imperative consider violence as a divine duty or a sacramental act. It embraces
different means of legitimisation and justification compared to other terrorist groups, and
these distinguishing factors make religious terrorism more destructive in nature.
2.2.4 Ideology Oriented T errorism
Any ideology can be used to support the use of violence and terrorism. Ideology oriented
terrorism is generally classified into two: Left-wing and Right-wing terrorism.
(a) Left-wing Terrorism-Violence against the ruling elite mostly by the peasant class
motivated by what are called leftist ideologies have occurred time and again in history .
However, the ideological basis for the left and subsequent violent movements was
provided by the writings of Marx and Engels. This was supported by the writings and
speeches of later communists like Lenin and Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). Leftist
ideologies believe that all the existing social relations and state structures in the capitalist
society are exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means
is essential. Examples of leftist ideologies that have resorted to the use of terror are
numerous. These include; the Red Army Faction or Baader Meinhof Gang in the
former West Germany, the Red Brigades in Italy, the 17 November Movement in
Greece, the Shining Path of Peru, Peoples Revolutionary Army and the Motoneros of
Argentina. The Maoist groups in India and Nepal are the most easily identifiable
groups closer home.
(b) Right-wing T errorism- Right-wing groups generally seek to maintain the status-quo
or to return to some past situation that they feel should have been conserved. Sometimes,
groups espousing rightist ideologies might assume ethnic/racist character too. They
may force the government to acquire a territory or to intervene to protect the rights of
an ‘oppressed’ minority in a neighboring country (i.e : the Nazi Party in Germany).
Violence against migrant communities also comes under this category of terrorist
violence. It is to be noted here that religion can play a supportive role to rightist
violence. Examples of these are: Nazism in Germany , Fascists in Italy , white supremacy
movements in the US known as Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the Green Jackets of Denmark
in the 1980s etc.
2.2.5 State-sponsored T errorism
2.2.5.1 State-sponsored terrorism or warfare by proxy is as old as the history of military
conflict. W alter Laqueur notes that such established practices existed in ancient times; in the
Oriental empires, in Rome and Byzantium, in Asia and Europe.
4
 However, state-sponsored
terrorism on a massive scale reappeared in international politics in the 1960s and 1970s, and
today along with religious terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism has considerably altered the
nature of terrorist activities around the world.
2.2.5.2 In recent times, some countries have embraced terrorism as a deliberate instrument of
foreign policy . One distinction of state sponsored terrorism from other forms of terrorist activity
is that it is initiated to obtain certain clearly defined foreign policy objectives rather than
grabbing media attention or targeting the potential audience. Given this character, it operates
under fewer constraints and causes greater casualty on the target (Hoffman, 1998). In a cost-
benefit analysis, state-sponsored terrorism is the most effective means of terrorism from the
perspective of the perpetrator.
Combatting T errorism T errorism – T ypes, Genesis and Definition
4
Source: Refer to Annexure II of this Report.
4
of the T alibans during the anti-Soviet militant movement was made possible largely because
of extensive patronage by USA’s CIA and Pakistan’s ISI, with billions of dollars in cash
and in kind having been poured into the region via Pakistan. For a few years in the recent
past, it looked as though the Taliban was effectively decimated in the wake of the ‘war
against terror’ waged in Afghanistan by the USA in collaboration with its allies. But
during the past couple of years’ the T aliban appears to be fast regaining their lost ground.
This is already having serious security implications not only in Afghanistan but also in
Pakistan and India.
2.2 T ypes of T errorism
2.2.1 T errorists are motivated by different goals and objectives. Depending on the objectives
of the group/groups, the nature of terrorism also differs. The major types of terrorist operations
commonly identified globally include:
2.2.2 Ethno-Nationalist T errorism
Terrorism motivated by ethno-nationalist and separatist aspirations became prominent
only after the Second W orld W ar and dominated the terrorist agenda around the world for
more than 50 years until religious terrorism came to occupy the centre stage. Ethnic terrorism
can be defined, according to Daniel Byman
2
, as deliberate violence by a subnational ethnic
group to advance its cause. Such violence usually focuses either on the creation of a separate
State or on the elevation of the status of one ethnic group over others. Tamil Nationalist
groups in Sri Lanka and insurgent groups in North East India are examples of ethno-
nationalist terrorist activities.
2.2.3 Religious T errorism
Present-day terrorist activities around the world are motivated largely by religious imperatives.
According to Hoffman
3
, the practitioners of terrorism motivated either in whole or in part by
a religious imperative consider violence as a divine duty or a sacramental act. It embraces
different means of legitimisation and justification compared to other terrorist groups, and
these distinguishing factors make religious terrorism more destructive in nature.
2.2.4 Ideology Oriented T errorism
Any ideology can be used to support the use of violence and terrorism. Ideology oriented
terrorism is generally classified into two: Left-wing and Right-wing terrorism.
(a) Left-wing Terrorism-Violence against the ruling elite mostly by the peasant class
motivated by what are called leftist ideologies have occurred time and again in history .
However, the ideological basis for the left and subsequent violent movements was
provided by the writings of Marx and Engels. This was supported by the writings and
speeches of later communists like Lenin and Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). Leftist
ideologies believe that all the existing social relations and state structures in the capitalist
society are exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means
is essential. Examples of leftist ideologies that have resorted to the use of terror are
numerous. These include; the Red Army Faction or Baader Meinhof Gang in the
former West Germany, the Red Brigades in Italy, the 17 November Movement in
Greece, the Shining Path of Peru, Peoples Revolutionary Army and the Motoneros of
Argentina. The Maoist groups in India and Nepal are the most easily identifiable
groups closer home.
(b) Right-wing T errorism- Right-wing groups generally seek to maintain the status-quo
or to return to some past situation that they feel should have been conserved. Sometimes,
groups espousing rightist ideologies might assume ethnic/racist character too. They
may force the government to acquire a territory or to intervene to protect the rights of
an ‘oppressed’ minority in a neighboring country (i.e : the Nazi Party in Germany).
Violence against migrant communities also comes under this category of terrorist
violence. It is to be noted here that religion can play a supportive role to rightist
violence. Examples of these are: Nazism in Germany , Fascists in Italy , white supremacy
movements in the US known as Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the Green Jackets of Denmark
in the 1980s etc.
2.2.5 State-sponsored T errorism
2.2.5.1 State-sponsored terrorism or warfare by proxy is as old as the history of military
conflict. W alter Laqueur notes that such established practices existed in ancient times; in the
Oriental empires, in Rome and Byzantium, in Asia and Europe.
4
 However, state-sponsored
terrorism on a massive scale reappeared in international politics in the 1960s and 1970s, and
today along with religious terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism has considerably altered the
nature of terrorist activities around the world.
2.2.5.2 In recent times, some countries have embraced terrorism as a deliberate instrument of
foreign policy . One distinction of state sponsored terrorism from other forms of terrorist activity
is that it is initiated to obtain certain clearly defined foreign policy objectives rather than
grabbing media attention or targeting the potential audience. Given this character, it operates
under fewer constraints and causes greater casualty on the target (Hoffman, 1998). In a cost-
benefit analysis, state-sponsored terrorism is the most effective means of terrorism from the
perspective of the perpetrator.
Combatting T errorism T errorism – T ypes, Genesis and Definition
2
Source: Refer to Annexure II of this Report where the readings and general references are provided separately .
3
Source: Refer to Annexure II of this Report.