An Empire Across Three Continents Class 11 History

 Page 1


 
Theme 3.An Empire across Three Continents 
           It was the ancient Roman Empire which was spread across the three continents namely Europe, 
Asia and Africa. 
                                                                       Sources 
 
Texts                                Documents                                                             Material remains 
Histories written by                                     Inscriptions 
Contemporaries’                   documents on papyrus scrolls.                        Buildings, monuments, pottery, coins  
(Annals) 
 The two most powerful empires 
? The two empires that ruled between the birth of Christ and 630 CE were Rome and Iran. 
? The Romans and Iranians were neighbours, separated by narrow strip of land that ran along the 
river Euphrates.  
? They were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. 
          Roman Empire                                                              Iranian Empire 
 
 
 
 
  
 
The Phases of Roman Empire 
• The Roman Empire can broadly divide into two phases-Early Roman Empire and Late Roman 
Empire.  
 
• The whole period down to the main part of the 3
rd
 century can be called the 'early empire'. The 
period after 3
rd
 Century can be called the 'late empire'. 
 
 
 
 
  The main part of the 3
rd
 century 
        The period after 3
rd
 Century 
 
 
                       1               
The Roman Empire stretched from 
Spain in Europe to Syria in the East 
along the Mediterranean Sea in to 
Africa's desert. In the north its 
boundaries were marked by the river 
Rhine and Danube. In the South by 
the Sahara desert. 
Iran controlled the entire area south of 
Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia and at 
times large parts of Afghanistan.  
 
Early 
Roman 
Empire 
Late 
Roman 
Empire 
 
Page 2


 
Theme 3.An Empire across Three Continents 
           It was the ancient Roman Empire which was spread across the three continents namely Europe, 
Asia and Africa. 
                                                                       Sources 
 
Texts                                Documents                                                             Material remains 
Histories written by                                     Inscriptions 
Contemporaries’                   documents on papyrus scrolls.                        Buildings, monuments, pottery, coins  
(Annals) 
 The two most powerful empires 
? The two empires that ruled between the birth of Christ and 630 CE were Rome and Iran. 
? The Romans and Iranians were neighbours, separated by narrow strip of land that ran along the 
river Euphrates.  
? They were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. 
          Roman Empire                                                              Iranian Empire 
 
 
 
 
  
 
The Phases of Roman Empire 
• The Roman Empire can broadly divide into two phases-Early Roman Empire and Late Roman 
Empire.  
 
• The whole period down to the main part of the 3
rd
 century can be called the 'early empire'. The 
period after 3
rd
 Century can be called the 'late empire'. 
 
 
 
 
  The main part of the 3
rd
 century 
        The period after 3
rd
 Century 
 
 
                       1               
The Roman Empire stretched from 
Spain in Europe to Syria in the East 
along the Mediterranean Sea in to 
Africa's desert. In the north its 
boundaries were marked by the river 
Rhine and Danube. In the South by 
the Sahara desert. 
Iran controlled the entire area south of 
Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia and at 
times large parts of Afghanistan.  
 
Early 
Roman 
Empire 
Late 
Roman 
Empire 
 
 
Difference between the Roman Empire and Iranian Empire 
Major difference between the Roman and Iranian Empires were: 
 
• Roman Empire had a diverse population as compared to that of Iran.  
 
• The Parthians and Sasanians dynasties, that ruled Iran in this period, ruled largely 
over the Iranian population.  
• Whereas the Roman Empire was a variety of territories and cultures bound by the common 
system of govt.  
 
• Many languages were spoken in the Roman Empire, but for the administrative purposes only 
Greek and Latin were used. The upper class of east spoke Greek and those in the western part 
spoke Latin.  
 
• All the people in the Roman Empire were subjects of single ruler, the emperor, irrespective of 
where they lived and what language they spoke.  
 
                           The three main players in the political history of the empire 
 
 
 
                    Source of authority           Body of Wealthy families Paid& Professional 
 
Features of Roman Army 
The Army which was a paid and professional army where soldiers had to put up twenty five years of 
service. The existence of paid army was a distinctive feature of the Roman Empire. The army was the 
largest single organised body of the Roman Empire. It had the power to decide the fate of the emperors. 
The army was hated by the Senators. Thus, it can be said that the emperor, the aristocracy, and the army 
were the three players in the political history of the empire. 
Succession to the throne in the Roman Empire 
Family descent, either natural or adoptive, was the decisive factor in the succession to the throne in the 
Roman Empire. The army was also wedded to this concept. For e.g. Tiberius was not the natural but 
adopted son of Augustus. 
The Augustan age 
The Augustan age is remembered as the age of peace. It brought peace after decades of internal strife and 
centuries of military conquest. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. 
 
                                           2               
 
The Emperor 
The Senate The Army 
Page 3


 
Theme 3.An Empire across Three Continents 
           It was the ancient Roman Empire which was spread across the three continents namely Europe, 
Asia and Africa. 
                                                                       Sources 
 
Texts                                Documents                                                             Material remains 
Histories written by                                     Inscriptions 
Contemporaries’                   documents on papyrus scrolls.                        Buildings, monuments, pottery, coins  
(Annals) 
 The two most powerful empires 
? The two empires that ruled between the birth of Christ and 630 CE were Rome and Iran. 
? The Romans and Iranians were neighbours, separated by narrow strip of land that ran along the 
river Euphrates.  
? They were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. 
          Roman Empire                                                              Iranian Empire 
 
 
 
 
  
 
The Phases of Roman Empire 
• The Roman Empire can broadly divide into two phases-Early Roman Empire and Late Roman 
Empire.  
 
• The whole period down to the main part of the 3
rd
 century can be called the 'early empire'. The 
period after 3
rd
 Century can be called the 'late empire'. 
 
 
 
 
  The main part of the 3
rd
 century 
        The period after 3
rd
 Century 
 
 
                       1               
The Roman Empire stretched from 
Spain in Europe to Syria in the East 
along the Mediterranean Sea in to 
Africa's desert. In the north its 
boundaries were marked by the river 
Rhine and Danube. In the South by 
the Sahara desert. 
Iran controlled the entire area south of 
Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia and at 
times large parts of Afghanistan.  
 
Early 
Roman 
Empire 
Late 
Roman 
Empire 
 
 
Difference between the Roman Empire and Iranian Empire 
Major difference between the Roman and Iranian Empires were: 
 
• Roman Empire had a diverse population as compared to that of Iran.  
 
• The Parthians and Sasanians dynasties, that ruled Iran in this period, ruled largely 
over the Iranian population.  
• Whereas the Roman Empire was a variety of territories and cultures bound by the common 
system of govt.  
 
• Many languages were spoken in the Roman Empire, but for the administrative purposes only 
Greek and Latin were used. The upper class of east spoke Greek and those in the western part 
spoke Latin.  
 
• All the people in the Roman Empire were subjects of single ruler, the emperor, irrespective of 
where they lived and what language they spoke.  
 
                           The three main players in the political history of the empire 
 
 
 
                    Source of authority           Body of Wealthy families Paid& Professional 
 
Features of Roman Army 
The Army which was a paid and professional army where soldiers had to put up twenty five years of 
service. The existence of paid army was a distinctive feature of the Roman Empire. The army was the 
largest single organised body of the Roman Empire. It had the power to decide the fate of the emperors. 
The army was hated by the Senators. Thus, it can be said that the emperor, the aristocracy, and the army 
were the three players in the political history of the empire. 
Succession to the throne in the Roman Empire 
Family descent, either natural or adoptive, was the decisive factor in the succession to the throne in the 
Roman Empire. The army was also wedded to this concept. For e.g. Tiberius was not the natural but 
adopted son of Augustus. 
The Augustan age 
The Augustan age is remembered as the age of peace. It brought peace after decades of internal strife and 
centuries of military conquest. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. 
 
                                           2               
 
The Emperor 
The Senate The Army 
 
 Administration of the vast Roman Empire 
 
• The vast Roman Empire was controlled and administered with the help of urbanisation.  
 
• All the territories of the empire were organised in to provinces and were subject to taxation.  
 
• Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch that lined the shores of Mediterranean were the foundations 
of the imperial system.  
• It was through these cities that the government was able to collect tax from the provincial 
countryside which generated much of the wealth.  
• This shows that the local upper class was actively involved with the Roman state in 
administering their own territories and collecting taxes from them.  
• Throughout the second and third century the provincial upper classes provided experienced 
officers that administered the provinces and commanded the army.  
• Thus, they became the new elite of the Roman Empire. They controlled the army and looked 
after the provincial administration. They became much more powerful than the senatorial class 
because they had the backing of the Emperors.  
• Emperor Gallienus consolidated their rise to power by excluding senators from military 
command. He did this in order to prevent control of the empire from falling in to their hands.  
 
Meaning of Roman city 
 
An Urban centre with its own magistrates,city council and a ‘territory’containing villages under its 
jurisdiction.The villages could be upgraded to the status of city and vice-versa generally as a mark of 
favour from the emperor. 
 
 
Advantages of living in the city of Roman Empire 
 
 
The advantage of living in the city was that it might be better provided for during food shortages and 
famines in the country side. The cities had public baths and the urban population enjoyed a higher level of 
entertainment 
The Third- Century Crisis  
 
 
• The first and second centuries were a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. But 
the third century was a period of crisis.  
• In 225, new dynasty called Sasanians emerged in Iran. They were more aggressive and expanding 
rapidly in the direction of the Euphrates.  
• The Germanic tribes (barbarians) began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers. From 
233 to 280 saw repeated invasions. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory 
beyond the Danube.  
 
• The quick succession of emperors (25 emperors in 47 years) is a sign of strain faced by the 
empire in the 3 
rd
 century.  
 
 
 
 
                                             3               
Page 4


 
Theme 3.An Empire across Three Continents 
           It was the ancient Roman Empire which was spread across the three continents namely Europe, 
Asia and Africa. 
                                                                       Sources 
 
Texts                                Documents                                                             Material remains 
Histories written by                                     Inscriptions 
Contemporaries’                   documents on papyrus scrolls.                        Buildings, monuments, pottery, coins  
(Annals) 
 The two most powerful empires 
? The two empires that ruled between the birth of Christ and 630 CE were Rome and Iran. 
? The Romans and Iranians were neighbours, separated by narrow strip of land that ran along the 
river Euphrates.  
? They were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. 
          Roman Empire                                                              Iranian Empire 
 
 
 
 
  
 
The Phases of Roman Empire 
• The Roman Empire can broadly divide into two phases-Early Roman Empire and Late Roman 
Empire.  
 
• The whole period down to the main part of the 3
rd
 century can be called the 'early empire'. The 
period after 3
rd
 Century can be called the 'late empire'. 
 
 
 
 
  The main part of the 3
rd
 century 
        The period after 3
rd
 Century 
 
 
                       1               
The Roman Empire stretched from 
Spain in Europe to Syria in the East 
along the Mediterranean Sea in to 
Africa's desert. In the north its 
boundaries were marked by the river 
Rhine and Danube. In the South by 
the Sahara desert. 
Iran controlled the entire area south of 
Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia and at 
times large parts of Afghanistan.  
 
Early 
Roman 
Empire 
Late 
Roman 
Empire 
 
 
Difference between the Roman Empire and Iranian Empire 
Major difference between the Roman and Iranian Empires were: 
 
• Roman Empire had a diverse population as compared to that of Iran.  
 
• The Parthians and Sasanians dynasties, that ruled Iran in this period, ruled largely 
over the Iranian population.  
• Whereas the Roman Empire was a variety of territories and cultures bound by the common 
system of govt.  
 
• Many languages were spoken in the Roman Empire, but for the administrative purposes only 
Greek and Latin were used. The upper class of east spoke Greek and those in the western part 
spoke Latin.  
 
• All the people in the Roman Empire were subjects of single ruler, the emperor, irrespective of 
where they lived and what language they spoke.  
 
                           The three main players in the political history of the empire 
 
 
 
                    Source of authority           Body of Wealthy families Paid& Professional 
 
Features of Roman Army 
The Army which was a paid and professional army where soldiers had to put up twenty five years of 
service. The existence of paid army was a distinctive feature of the Roman Empire. The army was the 
largest single organised body of the Roman Empire. It had the power to decide the fate of the emperors. 
The army was hated by the Senators. Thus, it can be said that the emperor, the aristocracy, and the army 
were the three players in the political history of the empire. 
Succession to the throne in the Roman Empire 
Family descent, either natural or adoptive, was the decisive factor in the succession to the throne in the 
Roman Empire. The army was also wedded to this concept. For e.g. Tiberius was not the natural but 
adopted son of Augustus. 
The Augustan age 
The Augustan age is remembered as the age of peace. It brought peace after decades of internal strife and 
centuries of military conquest. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. 
 
                                           2               
 
The Emperor 
The Senate The Army 
 
 Administration of the vast Roman Empire 
 
• The vast Roman Empire was controlled and administered with the help of urbanisation.  
 
• All the territories of the empire were organised in to provinces and were subject to taxation.  
 
• Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch that lined the shores of Mediterranean were the foundations 
of the imperial system.  
• It was through these cities that the government was able to collect tax from the provincial 
countryside which generated much of the wealth.  
• This shows that the local upper class was actively involved with the Roman state in 
administering their own territories and collecting taxes from them.  
• Throughout the second and third century the provincial upper classes provided experienced 
officers that administered the provinces and commanded the army.  
• Thus, they became the new elite of the Roman Empire. They controlled the army and looked 
after the provincial administration. They became much more powerful than the senatorial class 
because they had the backing of the Emperors.  
• Emperor Gallienus consolidated their rise to power by excluding senators from military 
command. He did this in order to prevent control of the empire from falling in to their hands.  
 
Meaning of Roman city 
 
An Urban centre with its own magistrates,city council and a ‘territory’containing villages under its 
jurisdiction.The villages could be upgraded to the status of city and vice-versa generally as a mark of 
favour from the emperor. 
 
 
Advantages of living in the city of Roman Empire 
 
 
The advantage of living in the city was that it might be better provided for during food shortages and 
famines in the country side. The cities had public baths and the urban population enjoyed a higher level of 
entertainment 
The Third- Century Crisis  
 
 
• The first and second centuries were a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. But 
the third century was a period of crisis.  
• In 225, new dynasty called Sasanians emerged in Iran. They were more aggressive and expanding 
rapidly in the direction of the Euphrates.  
• The Germanic tribes (barbarians) began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers. From 
233 to 280 saw repeated invasions. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory 
beyond the Danube.  
 
• The quick succession of emperors (25 emperors in 47 years) is a sign of strain faced by the 
empire in the 3 
rd
 century.  
 
 
 
 
                                             3               
 
Gender, Literacy, Culture 
 
 Structure of Family 
There was widespread prevalence of nuclear family. Adult sons did not live with their parents and it was 
exceptional for adult brothers to share a common household. Slaves were however included in the family. 
Status of women 
• The women enjoyed considerable legal rights in owning and managing property.  
 
• They were married off in the late teens or early thirties.  
 
• Arrange marriage was the general norm  
 
• women were often subject to domination by their husbands  
 
• Wives were even beaten up by their husbands.  
 
• The typical form of marriage was one where the wife did not transfer to her husband's authority but 
retained full rights in the property of her natal family.  
• Women remained a primary heir to father's property after marriage. They could become independent 
property owners after their father's death.  
• Divorce was easy for both men as well as women. 
Literacy 
 
• The rate of literacy varied greatly between different parts of the empire.  
 
• Literacy was widespread in army officers, estate managers and soldiers  
 
• Casual literacy existed and it varied from place to place. 
There was a wall in pompei which carried advertisements and graffiti, which indicates high level of casual 
literacy. 
 
Cultural diversity  
 
• The cultural diversity was reflected in many ways and at many levels.  
 
• There was a vast diversity of religious cults and local deities, the plurality of languages that were 
spoken, the styles of dresses that were worn.  
• The food the people ate their forms of social organisation and their types of settlement, all reflected 
cultural diversity.  
• Different languages were spoken in different areas. Most of the linguistic cultures were purely oral, at 
least until a script was invented for them.  
• As late as fifth century, Armenian began to be used as written form of language. 
•  In other areas the spread of Latin displaced the other widespread written form of languages. 
Economic activities of the Ancient Roman Empire 
 
 
• The Roman Empire had substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, 
olive oil factories etc.  
• Goods for trade consisted mainly wheat, wine and olive oil and they came from Spain, the Gallic 
provinces, north Africa, Egypt and Italy. These areas had conditions best suited for these crops.  
• Spanish olive oil was a vast commercial enterprise that reached its peak in the years 140-160.  
 
 
                                   4                 
Page 5


 
Theme 3.An Empire across Three Continents 
           It was the ancient Roman Empire which was spread across the three continents namely Europe, 
Asia and Africa. 
                                                                       Sources 
 
Texts                                Documents                                                             Material remains 
Histories written by                                     Inscriptions 
Contemporaries’                   documents on papyrus scrolls.                        Buildings, monuments, pottery, coins  
(Annals) 
 The two most powerful empires 
? The two empires that ruled between the birth of Christ and 630 CE were Rome and Iran. 
? The Romans and Iranians were neighbours, separated by narrow strip of land that ran along the 
river Euphrates.  
? They were rivals and fought against each other for much of their history. 
          Roman Empire                                                              Iranian Empire 
 
 
 
 
  
 
The Phases of Roman Empire 
• The Roman Empire can broadly divide into two phases-Early Roman Empire and Late Roman 
Empire.  
 
• The whole period down to the main part of the 3
rd
 century can be called the 'early empire'. The 
period after 3
rd
 Century can be called the 'late empire'. 
 
 
 
 
  The main part of the 3
rd
 century 
        The period after 3
rd
 Century 
 
 
                       1               
The Roman Empire stretched from 
Spain in Europe to Syria in the East 
along the Mediterranean Sea in to 
Africa's desert. In the north its 
boundaries were marked by the river 
Rhine and Danube. In the South by 
the Sahara desert. 
Iran controlled the entire area south of 
Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia and at 
times large parts of Afghanistan.  
 
Early 
Roman 
Empire 
Late 
Roman 
Empire 
 
 
Difference between the Roman Empire and Iranian Empire 
Major difference between the Roman and Iranian Empires were: 
 
• Roman Empire had a diverse population as compared to that of Iran.  
 
• The Parthians and Sasanians dynasties, that ruled Iran in this period, ruled largely 
over the Iranian population.  
• Whereas the Roman Empire was a variety of territories and cultures bound by the common 
system of govt.  
 
• Many languages were spoken in the Roman Empire, but for the administrative purposes only 
Greek and Latin were used. The upper class of east spoke Greek and those in the western part 
spoke Latin.  
 
• All the people in the Roman Empire were subjects of single ruler, the emperor, irrespective of 
where they lived and what language they spoke.  
 
                           The three main players in the political history of the empire 
 
 
 
                    Source of authority           Body of Wealthy families Paid& Professional 
 
Features of Roman Army 
The Army which was a paid and professional army where soldiers had to put up twenty five years of 
service. The existence of paid army was a distinctive feature of the Roman Empire. The army was the 
largest single organised body of the Roman Empire. It had the power to decide the fate of the emperors. 
The army was hated by the Senators. Thus, it can be said that the emperor, the aristocracy, and the army 
were the three players in the political history of the empire. 
Succession to the throne in the Roman Empire 
Family descent, either natural or adoptive, was the decisive factor in the succession to the throne in the 
Roman Empire. The army was also wedded to this concept. For e.g. Tiberius was not the natural but 
adopted son of Augustus. 
The Augustan age 
The Augustan age is remembered as the age of peace. It brought peace after decades of internal strife and 
centuries of military conquest. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. 
 
                                           2               
 
The Emperor 
The Senate The Army 
 
 Administration of the vast Roman Empire 
 
• The vast Roman Empire was controlled and administered with the help of urbanisation.  
 
• All the territories of the empire were organised in to provinces and were subject to taxation.  
 
• Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch that lined the shores of Mediterranean were the foundations 
of the imperial system.  
• It was through these cities that the government was able to collect tax from the provincial 
countryside which generated much of the wealth.  
• This shows that the local upper class was actively involved with the Roman state in 
administering their own territories and collecting taxes from them.  
• Throughout the second and third century the provincial upper classes provided experienced 
officers that administered the provinces and commanded the army.  
• Thus, they became the new elite of the Roman Empire. They controlled the army and looked 
after the provincial administration. They became much more powerful than the senatorial class 
because they had the backing of the Emperors.  
• Emperor Gallienus consolidated their rise to power by excluding senators from military 
command. He did this in order to prevent control of the empire from falling in to their hands.  
 
Meaning of Roman city 
 
An Urban centre with its own magistrates,city council and a ‘territory’containing villages under its 
jurisdiction.The villages could be upgraded to the status of city and vice-versa generally as a mark of 
favour from the emperor. 
 
 
Advantages of living in the city of Roman Empire 
 
 
The advantage of living in the city was that it might be better provided for during food shortages and 
famines in the country side. The cities had public baths and the urban population enjoyed a higher level of 
entertainment 
The Third- Century Crisis  
 
 
• The first and second centuries were a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. But 
the third century was a period of crisis.  
• In 225, new dynasty called Sasanians emerged in Iran. They were more aggressive and expanding 
rapidly in the direction of the Euphrates.  
• The Germanic tribes (barbarians) began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers. From 
233 to 280 saw repeated invasions. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory 
beyond the Danube.  
 
• The quick succession of emperors (25 emperors in 47 years) is a sign of strain faced by the 
empire in the 3 
rd
 century.  
 
 
 
 
                                             3               
 
Gender, Literacy, Culture 
 
 Structure of Family 
There was widespread prevalence of nuclear family. Adult sons did not live with their parents and it was 
exceptional for adult brothers to share a common household. Slaves were however included in the family. 
Status of women 
• The women enjoyed considerable legal rights in owning and managing property.  
 
• They were married off in the late teens or early thirties.  
 
• Arrange marriage was the general norm  
 
• women were often subject to domination by their husbands  
 
• Wives were even beaten up by their husbands.  
 
• The typical form of marriage was one where the wife did not transfer to her husband's authority but 
retained full rights in the property of her natal family.  
• Women remained a primary heir to father's property after marriage. They could become independent 
property owners after their father's death.  
• Divorce was easy for both men as well as women. 
Literacy 
 
• The rate of literacy varied greatly between different parts of the empire.  
 
• Literacy was widespread in army officers, estate managers and soldiers  
 
• Casual literacy existed and it varied from place to place. 
There was a wall in pompei which carried advertisements and graffiti, which indicates high level of casual 
literacy. 
 
Cultural diversity  
 
• The cultural diversity was reflected in many ways and at many levels.  
 
• There was a vast diversity of religious cults and local deities, the plurality of languages that were 
spoken, the styles of dresses that were worn.  
• The food the people ate their forms of social organisation and their types of settlement, all reflected 
cultural diversity.  
• Different languages were spoken in different areas. Most of the linguistic cultures were purely oral, at 
least until a script was invented for them.  
• As late as fifth century, Armenian began to be used as written form of language. 
•  In other areas the spread of Latin displaced the other widespread written form of languages. 
Economic activities of the Ancient Roman Empire 
 
 
• The Roman Empire had substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, 
olive oil factories etc.  
• Goods for trade consisted mainly wheat, wine and olive oil and they came from Spain, the Gallic 
provinces, north Africa, Egypt and Italy. These areas had conditions best suited for these crops.  
• Spanish olive oil was a vast commercial enterprise that reached its peak in the years 140-160.  
 
 
                                   4                 
 
• The Roman Empire included regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. E.g.Compania  
 
• Italy, Sicily, Fayum in Egypt, Galilee, Byzacium (Tunisia), southern Gaul, Baetica (southern Spain) 
.These area had best conditioned crops.  
• The large expenses of Roman territory were in a much less advanced state.  
 
• Transhumance was widespread in the country side of Numidia(Modern Algeria)  
• As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were drastically 
reduced and their movements more tightly regulated.  
• Even in Spain the north was economically much less developed. In these areas peasantry who were 
Celtic-speaking lived in hilltop villages known as castella.  
• In the Roman Empire water power was very efficiently used around Mediterranean and there were 
advances in the water powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in Spanish 
gold and silver mines.  
• Well organised commercial and banking networks existed.  
• Widespread use of money indicates that the Roman Empire had sophisticated economy. 
 
Controlling of Workers in the Roman Empire  
 
• Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in Ancient Roman world.  
 
• Though slavery was institutionalized and was greatly used as labour but it was not always slaves that 
performed labour in the Roman economy.  
• As peace was established in the first century, the supply of slaves declined and users of slave labour 
had to turn to slave breeding or cheaper substitutes such as wage labour which were easily 
dispensable.  
 
• Most of the time free labour was used, as slaves had to be provided with food and maintained 
throughout the year which proved expensive. This is the reason that the slaves were not employed in 
the agriculture.  
 
• On the other hand ,slaves and freedmen were extensively used in jobs where labour was not required 
in large number that is as business managers  
• There was a presumption that without supervision no work would ever get done .So supervision was 
most important for both freed slaves and slaves.  
• For a better supervision the slaves were grouped into gang of ten. So that it could be easy to see who 
is putting in effort and who is not.  
• This method was criticised by Pliny the Elder. He was of the opinion that the slave gangs were the 
worst method of organizing production because slaves who worked in gangs were usually chained 
together by their feet.  
• Although all this look harsh yet similar principles of labour control are being enforced in most of the 
factories in the world today.  
 
• Debt contracts were a type of agreements between the private employees and their workers. In these 
debt contracts it was claimed that the employees were in debt to their employers and as a result were 
under tighter control. A large number of families went in to debt bondage in order to survive.  
 
 
 
 
 
                                           5