Page 1
What is biotechnology?
? Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
? The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
? Genetic engineering - ?Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
? Aseptic techniques - ?Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
? Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
? Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
? Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
? Genetic engineering includes:
? Creation of recombinant DNA
? Gene cloning
? Gene transfer into host organism
? The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
? For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
Page 2
What is biotechnology?
? Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
? The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
? Genetic engineering - ?Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
? Aseptic techniques - ?Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
? Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
? Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
? Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
? Genetic engineering includes:
? Creation of recombinant DNA
? Gene cloning
? Gene transfer into host organism
? The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
? For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
process is called ?cloning ?(the process of formation of multiple identical
copies of DNA).
Construction of a Recombinant DNA
? Plasmid (autonomously replicating, circular, extrachromosomal DNA)
is isolated.
? Plasmid DNA acts asa ? vector ?since it is used to transfer the piece of
DNA attached to it to the host.
? Plasmid DNA also contains genes responsible for providing antibiotic
resistance to the bacteria.
? Plasmid DNA was cut with a specific restriction enzyme (‘molecular
scissors’ - that cut a DNA at specific locations).
? The DNA of interest (to be inserted) was also cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
? The DNA of interest is hybridised with the plasmid with the help of
DNA ligase to form a ?Recombinant DNA ?.
? Recombinant DNA is then transferred to a host such as ?E.coli ?, where it
replicates by using the host’s replicating machinery.
? When ?E.coli ? is cultured in a medium containing antibiotic, only cells
containing recombinant DNA will be able to survive due to antibiotic
resistance genes and one will be able to isolate the recombinants.
?Restriction Enzymes as Tools of RDT
? Restriction enzymes are specialised enzymes that recognise and cut a
particular sequence of DNA.
? Nucleases are of two types:
? Endonucleases - Cut the DNA at specific positions within the
DNA
? Exonucleases - Cut the DNA at the ends (Remove the
nucleotides at the ends of the DNA)
? Every restriction enzyme identifies different sequences (Recognition
sequences). Over 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated, all of
which recognise different sequences.
? Recognition sequences are ?pallindromic ? Pallindromes are the
Page 3
What is biotechnology?
? Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
? The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
? Genetic engineering - ?Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
? Aseptic techniques - ?Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
? Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
? Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
? Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
? Genetic engineering includes:
? Creation of recombinant DNA
? Gene cloning
? Gene transfer into host organism
? The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
? For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
process is called ?cloning ?(the process of formation of multiple identical
copies of DNA).
Construction of a Recombinant DNA
? Plasmid (autonomously replicating, circular, extrachromosomal DNA)
is isolated.
? Plasmid DNA acts asa ? vector ?since it is used to transfer the piece of
DNA attached to it to the host.
? Plasmid DNA also contains genes responsible for providing antibiotic
resistance to the bacteria.
? Plasmid DNA was cut with a specific restriction enzyme (‘molecular
scissors’ - that cut a DNA at specific locations).
? The DNA of interest (to be inserted) was also cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
? The DNA of interest is hybridised with the plasmid with the help of
DNA ligase to form a ?Recombinant DNA ?.
? Recombinant DNA is then transferred to a host such as ?E.coli ?, where it
replicates by using the host’s replicating machinery.
? When ?E.coli ? is cultured in a medium containing antibiotic, only cells
containing recombinant DNA will be able to survive due to antibiotic
resistance genes and one will be able to isolate the recombinants.
?Restriction Enzymes as Tools of RDT
? Restriction enzymes are specialised enzymes that recognise and cut a
particular sequence of DNA.
? Nucleases are of two types:
? Endonucleases - Cut the DNA at specific positions within the
DNA
? Exonucleases - Cut the DNA at the ends (Remove the
nucleotides at the ends of the DNA)
? Every restriction enzyme identifies different sequences (Recognition
sequences). Over 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated, all of
which recognise different sequences.
? Recognition sequences are ?pallindromic ? Pallindromes are the
sequence of base pairs that read same both backwards and forwards
(i.e., same and direction).
Example:
? Restriction enzymes cut a little away from the centre of pallindrome
site, but between the same two bases on the opposite strands.
? As a result, overhangs (called sticky ends) are generated on each
strand.
? Sticky ends form hydrogen bonds with their complementary
counterparts with help of DNA ligases.
? All these processes form the basis of RDT.
Page 4
What is biotechnology?
? Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
? The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
? Genetic engineering - ?Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
? Aseptic techniques - ?Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
? Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
? Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
? Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
? Genetic engineering includes:
? Creation of recombinant DNA
? Gene cloning
? Gene transfer into host organism
? The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
? For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
process is called ?cloning ?(the process of formation of multiple identical
copies of DNA).
Construction of a Recombinant DNA
? Plasmid (autonomously replicating, circular, extrachromosomal DNA)
is isolated.
? Plasmid DNA acts asa ? vector ?since it is used to transfer the piece of
DNA attached to it to the host.
? Plasmid DNA also contains genes responsible for providing antibiotic
resistance to the bacteria.
? Plasmid DNA was cut with a specific restriction enzyme (‘molecular
scissors’ - that cut a DNA at specific locations).
? The DNA of interest (to be inserted) was also cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
? The DNA of interest is hybridised with the plasmid with the help of
DNA ligase to form a ?Recombinant DNA ?.
? Recombinant DNA is then transferred to a host such as ?E.coli ?, where it
replicates by using the host’s replicating machinery.
? When ?E.coli ? is cultured in a medium containing antibiotic, only cells
containing recombinant DNA will be able to survive due to antibiotic
resistance genes and one will be able to isolate the recombinants.
?Restriction Enzymes as Tools of RDT
? Restriction enzymes are specialised enzymes that recognise and cut a
particular sequence of DNA.
? Nucleases are of two types:
? Endonucleases - Cut the DNA at specific positions within the
DNA
? Exonucleases - Cut the DNA at the ends (Remove the
nucleotides at the ends of the DNA)
? Every restriction enzyme identifies different sequences (Recognition
sequences). Over 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated, all of
which recognise different sequences.
? Recognition sequences are ?pallindromic ? Pallindromes are the
sequence of base pairs that read same both backwards and forwards
(i.e., same and direction).
Example:
? Restriction enzymes cut a little away from the centre of pallindrome
site, but between the same two bases on the opposite strands.
? As a result, overhangs (called sticky ends) are generated on each
strand.
? Sticky ends form hydrogen bonds with their complementary
counterparts with help of DNA ligases.
? All these processes form the basis of RDT.
? Naming restriction enzyme
? I ? st ? letter - Genus of the organism from which the enzyme is
derived
? II ? nd ? and III ? rd ? letters - Species of the organism
? IV ? th ? letter - Name of the strain
? Roman number - Order of isolation
E.g., In EcoRI - Derived from ?E.coli ?, strain R.
It is the I ? st ? to be discovered.
Gel Electrophoresis
? The fragments obtained after cutting with restriction enzymes are
separated by using gel electrophoresis.
? Electric field is applied to the electrophoresis matrix (commonly
agarose gel) and negatively charged DNA fragments move towards the
anode.
? Fragments separate according to their size by the sieving properties of
agarose gel. Smaller the fragment, farther it moves.
? Staining dyes such as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV
Page 5
What is biotechnology?
? Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
? The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
? Genetic engineering - ?Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
? Aseptic techniques - ?Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
? Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
? Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
? Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
? Genetic engineering includes:
? Creation of recombinant DNA
? Gene cloning
? Gene transfer into host organism
? The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
? For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
process is called ?cloning ?(the process of formation of multiple identical
copies of DNA).
Construction of a Recombinant DNA
? Plasmid (autonomously replicating, circular, extrachromosomal DNA)
is isolated.
? Plasmid DNA acts asa ? vector ?since it is used to transfer the piece of
DNA attached to it to the host.
? Plasmid DNA also contains genes responsible for providing antibiotic
resistance to the bacteria.
? Plasmid DNA was cut with a specific restriction enzyme (‘molecular
scissors’ - that cut a DNA at specific locations).
? The DNA of interest (to be inserted) was also cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
? The DNA of interest is hybridised with the plasmid with the help of
DNA ligase to form a ?Recombinant DNA ?.
? Recombinant DNA is then transferred to a host such as ?E.coli ?, where it
replicates by using the host’s replicating machinery.
? When ?E.coli ? is cultured in a medium containing antibiotic, only cells
containing recombinant DNA will be able to survive due to antibiotic
resistance genes and one will be able to isolate the recombinants.
?Restriction Enzymes as Tools of RDT
? Restriction enzymes are specialised enzymes that recognise and cut a
particular sequence of DNA.
? Nucleases are of two types:
? Endonucleases - Cut the DNA at specific positions within the
DNA
? Exonucleases - Cut the DNA at the ends (Remove the
nucleotides at the ends of the DNA)
? Every restriction enzyme identifies different sequences (Recognition
sequences). Over 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated, all of
which recognise different sequences.
? Recognition sequences are ?pallindromic ? Pallindromes are the
sequence of base pairs that read same both backwards and forwards
(i.e., same and direction).
Example:
? Restriction enzymes cut a little away from the centre of pallindrome
site, but between the same two bases on the opposite strands.
? As a result, overhangs (called sticky ends) are generated on each
strand.
? Sticky ends form hydrogen bonds with their complementary
counterparts with help of DNA ligases.
? All these processes form the basis of RDT.
? Naming restriction enzyme
? I ? st ? letter - Genus of the organism from which the enzyme is
derived
? II ? nd ? and III ? rd ? letters - Species of the organism
? IV ? th ? letter - Name of the strain
? Roman number - Order of isolation
E.g., In EcoRI - Derived from ?E.coli ?, strain R.
It is the I ? st ? to be discovered.
Gel Electrophoresis
? The fragments obtained after cutting with restriction enzymes are
separated by using gel electrophoresis.
? Electric field is applied to the electrophoresis matrix (commonly
agarose gel) and negatively charged DNA fragments move towards the
anode.
? Fragments separate according to their size by the sieving properties of
agarose gel. Smaller the fragment, farther it moves.
? Staining dyes such as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV
radiations are used to visualise the DNA fragments.
? DNA fragments are visible as bright orange coloured bands in the
agarose matrix.
? These bands are cut from the agarose gel and extracted from the gel
piece (elution).
? DNA fragments are purified and these purified DNA fragments are used
in constructing recombinant DNAs.
Cloning vectors & host as tools of RDT
Cloning Vectors
? Plasmids and bacteriophages are commonly used as cloning vectors.
? Both of these have the ability to replicate within the bacterial cells
independent of the chromosomal DNA.
? Bacteriophages - Have high copy number (of genome) within the
bacterial cell
? Plasmids - May have 1 - 2 copy number to 15 - 100 copy number
per cell
? If foreign DNA is linked to these vectors, then it is multiplied to the
number equal to the copy number of vector.
? Features present in the vector itself help in the easy isolation of
recombinants from the nonrecombinants.
Components of a plasmid cloning vector
? Origin of replication ( ?o ri ?)
? Replication starts from ?ori ?. Any fragment of DNA when linked to
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