Page 1
? Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
? There are two basic ecosystems - terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
? The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
? Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
? The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
? Productivity
? Decomposition
? Energy flow
? Nutrient cycling
Productivity
? A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
? The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the ?primary productivity ?.
? It is expressed as weight (g ? -2 ? ) or energy (Kcal m ? -2 ? ).
? Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP - Respiratory losses (R)
? Secondary productivity ? is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
? Primary productivity depends upon
? type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
Page 2
? Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
? There are two basic ecosystems - terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
? The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
? Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
? The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
? Productivity
? Decomposition
? Energy flow
? Nutrient cycling
Productivity
? A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
? The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the ?primary productivity ?.
? It is expressed as weight (g ? -2 ? ) or energy (Kcal m ? -2 ? ).
? Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP - Respiratory losses (R)
? Secondary productivity ? is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
? Primary productivity depends upon
? type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
? photosynthetic capacity of plants
? nutrient availability
? Annual net productivity for whole biosphere is about 170 b tons of
organic matter.
Decomposition
? It is the process of breakdown of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, etc.
? Fragmentation ? - Breaking down of detritus (dead plant and animal
remains, faecal matter) into smaller particles by detritivores
(decomposers)
? Leaching ? Process by which these inorganic matters enter the soil
? Catabolism ? - Process by which detritus is degraded into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes
? Humification ? - Accumulation of humus in the soil.
Humus is resistant to microbial action and decomposes at an
extremely slow rate. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
? Mineralization ? - Process by which humus further degrades to release
minerals into the soil
? It is an oxygen consuming process and is controlled by the chemical
composition of detritus and climatic conditions.
Energy Flow
? Sun is the sole source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.
? Plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize less than 50% of the
solar radiation known as the ?photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) ?.
? In an ecosystem, plants are called ?producers ? and all animals depend
upon the plants directly or indirectly for their food. Hence, they are
known as consumers or heterotrophs.
? The consumers can be further divided into primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (primary carnivores), and tertiary
consumers (secondary carnivores).
? Food chain ? - The energy flow among the various constituent animals
Page 3
? Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
? There are two basic ecosystems - terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
? The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
? Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
? The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
? Productivity
? Decomposition
? Energy flow
? Nutrient cycling
Productivity
? A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
? The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the ?primary productivity ?.
? It is expressed as weight (g ? -2 ? ) or energy (Kcal m ? -2 ? ).
? Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP - Respiratory losses (R)
? Secondary productivity ? is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
? Primary productivity depends upon
? type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
? photosynthetic capacity of plants
? nutrient availability
? Annual net productivity for whole biosphere is about 170 b tons of
organic matter.
Decomposition
? It is the process of breakdown of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, etc.
? Fragmentation ? - Breaking down of detritus (dead plant and animal
remains, faecal matter) into smaller particles by detritivores
(decomposers)
? Leaching ? Process by which these inorganic matters enter the soil
? Catabolism ? - Process by which detritus is degraded into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes
? Humification ? - Accumulation of humus in the soil.
Humus is resistant to microbial action and decomposes at an
extremely slow rate. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
? Mineralization ? - Process by which humus further degrades to release
minerals into the soil
? It is an oxygen consuming process and is controlled by the chemical
composition of detritus and climatic conditions.
Energy Flow
? Sun is the sole source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.
? Plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize less than 50% of the
solar radiation known as the ?photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) ?.
? In an ecosystem, plants are called ?producers ? and all animals depend
upon the plants directly or indirectly for their food. Hence, they are
known as consumers or heterotrophs.
? The consumers can be further divided into primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (primary carnivores), and tertiary
consumers (secondary carnivores).
? Food chain ? - The energy flow among the various constituent animals
is known as the food chain.
? Food web ? - The interconnection of the various food chains is called
the food web.
? Trophic level ? - Every organism occupies a specific level in their food
chain known as the trophic level.
? Standing crop ? - Each trophic level contains a certain amount of
living material at a certain time known as the standing crop.
? The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted since the
energy transfer follows the 10 percent law i.e., only 10% of the energy
is transferred from a lower trophic level to a higher one.
Ecological Pyramids
? The energy relationship between the different trophic levels is
represented by the ecological pyramids.
? Their base represents the producers or the first trophic level while the
apex represents the tertiary or top level consumer.
? Ecological pyramids are of 3 types:
? Pyramid of number
? Pyramid of biomass
? Pyramid of energy
Page 4
? Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
? There are two basic ecosystems - terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
? The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
? Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
? The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
? Productivity
? Decomposition
? Energy flow
? Nutrient cycling
Productivity
? A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
? The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the ?primary productivity ?.
? It is expressed as weight (g ? -2 ? ) or energy (Kcal m ? -2 ? ).
? Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP - Respiratory losses (R)
? Secondary productivity ? is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
? Primary productivity depends upon
? type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
? photosynthetic capacity of plants
? nutrient availability
? Annual net productivity for whole biosphere is about 170 b tons of
organic matter.
Decomposition
? It is the process of breakdown of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, etc.
? Fragmentation ? - Breaking down of detritus (dead plant and animal
remains, faecal matter) into smaller particles by detritivores
(decomposers)
? Leaching ? Process by which these inorganic matters enter the soil
? Catabolism ? - Process by which detritus is degraded into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes
? Humification ? - Accumulation of humus in the soil.
Humus is resistant to microbial action and decomposes at an
extremely slow rate. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
? Mineralization ? - Process by which humus further degrades to release
minerals into the soil
? It is an oxygen consuming process and is controlled by the chemical
composition of detritus and climatic conditions.
Energy Flow
? Sun is the sole source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.
? Plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize less than 50% of the
solar radiation known as the ?photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) ?.
? In an ecosystem, plants are called ?producers ? and all animals depend
upon the plants directly or indirectly for their food. Hence, they are
known as consumers or heterotrophs.
? The consumers can be further divided into primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (primary carnivores), and tertiary
consumers (secondary carnivores).
? Food chain ? - The energy flow among the various constituent animals
is known as the food chain.
? Food web ? - The interconnection of the various food chains is called
the food web.
? Trophic level ? - Every organism occupies a specific level in their food
chain known as the trophic level.
? Standing crop ? - Each trophic level contains a certain amount of
living material at a certain time known as the standing crop.
? The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted since the
energy transfer follows the 10 percent law i.e., only 10% of the energy
is transferred from a lower trophic level to a higher one.
Ecological Pyramids
? The energy relationship between the different trophic levels is
represented by the ecological pyramids.
? Their base represents the producers or the first trophic level while the
apex represents the tertiary or top level consumer.
? Ecological pyramids are of 3 types:
? Pyramid of number
? Pyramid of biomass
? Pyramid of energy
? In most ecosystems, the three pyramids are upright except in some
cases:
? The pyramid of biomass is inverted in an ocean ecosystem since
a small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large number
of zooplankton.
? The pyramid of number can be inverted when, say, a large tree
is eaten by small insects.
? However, the pyramid of energy is always upright.
? A trophic level represents a functional level and not a single species as
such. Also, a single species may become a part of more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time depending upon
the role it plays in the ecosystem.
? Limitations of ecological pyramids:
? The ecological pyramids do not take into account the same
species belonging to more than one trophic level.
Page 5
? Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
? There are two basic ecosystems - terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
? The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
? Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
? The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
? Productivity
? Decomposition
? Energy flow
? Nutrient cycling
Productivity
? A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
? The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the ?primary productivity ?.
? It is expressed as weight (g ? -2 ? ) or energy (Kcal m ? -2 ? ).
? Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP - Respiratory losses (R)
? Secondary productivity ? is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
? Primary productivity depends upon
? type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
? photosynthetic capacity of plants
? nutrient availability
? Annual net productivity for whole biosphere is about 170 b tons of
organic matter.
Decomposition
? It is the process of breakdown of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, etc.
? Fragmentation ? - Breaking down of detritus (dead plant and animal
remains, faecal matter) into smaller particles by detritivores
(decomposers)
? Leaching ? Process by which these inorganic matters enter the soil
? Catabolism ? - Process by which detritus is degraded into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes
? Humification ? - Accumulation of humus in the soil.
Humus is resistant to microbial action and decomposes at an
extremely slow rate. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
? Mineralization ? - Process by which humus further degrades to release
minerals into the soil
? It is an oxygen consuming process and is controlled by the chemical
composition of detritus and climatic conditions.
Energy Flow
? Sun is the sole source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.
? Plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize less than 50% of the
solar radiation known as the ?photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) ?.
? In an ecosystem, plants are called ?producers ? and all animals depend
upon the plants directly or indirectly for their food. Hence, they are
known as consumers or heterotrophs.
? The consumers can be further divided into primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (primary carnivores), and tertiary
consumers (secondary carnivores).
? Food chain ? - The energy flow among the various constituent animals
is known as the food chain.
? Food web ? - The interconnection of the various food chains is called
the food web.
? Trophic level ? - Every organism occupies a specific level in their food
chain known as the trophic level.
? Standing crop ? - Each trophic level contains a certain amount of
living material at a certain time known as the standing crop.
? The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted since the
energy transfer follows the 10 percent law i.e., only 10% of the energy
is transferred from a lower trophic level to a higher one.
Ecological Pyramids
? The energy relationship between the different trophic levels is
represented by the ecological pyramids.
? Their base represents the producers or the first trophic level while the
apex represents the tertiary or top level consumer.
? Ecological pyramids are of 3 types:
? Pyramid of number
? Pyramid of biomass
? Pyramid of energy
? In most ecosystems, the three pyramids are upright except in some
cases:
? The pyramid of biomass is inverted in an ocean ecosystem since
a small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large number
of zooplankton.
? The pyramid of number can be inverted when, say, a large tree
is eaten by small insects.
? However, the pyramid of energy is always upright.
? A trophic level represents a functional level and not a single species as
such. Also, a single species may become a part of more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time depending upon
the role it plays in the ecosystem.
? Limitations of ecological pyramids:
? The ecological pyramids do not take into account the same
species belonging to more than one trophic level.
? It assumes a simple food chain that almost never exists in
nature. It does not explain food webs.
? Saprophytes are not given a place in ecological pyramids even
though they play a vital role in ecosystem.
Ecological Succession
? The composition of all ecosystems keeps on changing with change in
their environment. These changes finally lead to the climax
community.
? Climax community ? - It is the community which is in equilibrium with
its environment. Gradual and fairly predictable change in the species’
composition of a given area is called ecological succession.
? Sere(s) ? - It is the sequence of communities that successively change
in a given environment. The transitional communities are called seral
stages or seral communities.
? Succession happens in areas where no life forms ever existed as in
bare rocks, cool lava, etc. ( ?primary succession ?), or in areas which
have lost all life forms due to destructions and floods ( ?secondary
succession ?).
? Primary succession takes hundreds to thousands of years as
developing soil on bare rocks is a slow process. Secondary succession
is faster than primary succession since the nature does not have to
start from scratch.
? During succession, any disturbances (natural/manmade) can convert
a particular seral stage to an earlier one.
? Hydrarch succession ? - It takes place in wet areas and converts
hydric conditions to mesic.
? Xerarch succession ? - It takes place in dry areas and converts xeric
conditions to mesic.
? Pioneer species ? - These are the species that first invade a bare
area. On land, these could be lichens that secrete enzymes to dissolve
the rock surfaces for soil formation while in water, pioneer species
could be phytoplanktons.
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