Page 1
Karur Taluk in 1965 mentions three Chera rulers, viz., Atan Cheral Irumporai,
his son Perumkadumko and his son Ilamkadumko. It provides valuable
epigraphic evidence in support of Chera Genealogy as gleaned from Sangam
works.The inscriptions of the Chalukyan kings of the 6
th
, 7
th
and 8
th
centuries
refer to the defeat of several Kerala rulers by the Chalukyas and the subjugation
of the Kerala kingdom.A Sanskrit inscription in Kannada Script which has been
ascribed by scholars to the Western Chalukya king Kirtivarma II has been
obtained from an ancient Siva temple at Adur in Kasargod taluk and this
testifies to the Chalukya hegemony over the area. The inscriptions of the
Pandya and Chola rulers discovered from various part of the Tamil Nadu throw
much light on the history of the Pandyan and Chola aggression in Kerala.The
Chola inscriptions discovered from the temples at Cholapuram, Cape Comorin,
Darsanamcopu, Tirunandikara, Suchindram, etc., bear witness to the Chola
Conquest in South Kerala.The undated Tillaisthanam record shows the friendly
relations between Aditya Chola and Sthanu Ravi.The Tiruvalangadu plate of
Rajendra Chola which mentions the Chola conoquest of Vizhinjam and the
Cholapuram record of Kulottunga Chola which refer to his retreat, to Kottar are
also important Chola records.Thus a study of the inscriptions would show that
they are of inestimable value in reconstructing the history of Kerala, particularly
of the PrePortuguese Period.
TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES
“Ancient India”, it is said, “Produced no Herodotus or Thucydides, no
“Livy or Tacitus”.This oft quoted statement is true of ancient Kerala as well.
None of the scholars of ancient Kerala took pains to compile genuine historical
narratives or accounts recording the events and developments of each epoch of
149
Page 2
Karur Taluk in 1965 mentions three Chera rulers, viz., Atan Cheral Irumporai,
his son Perumkadumko and his son Ilamkadumko. It provides valuable
epigraphic evidence in support of Chera Genealogy as gleaned from Sangam
works.The inscriptions of the Chalukyan kings of the 6
th
, 7
th
and 8
th
centuries
refer to the defeat of several Kerala rulers by the Chalukyas and the subjugation
of the Kerala kingdom.A Sanskrit inscription in Kannada Script which has been
ascribed by scholars to the Western Chalukya king Kirtivarma II has been
obtained from an ancient Siva temple at Adur in Kasargod taluk and this
testifies to the Chalukya hegemony over the area. The inscriptions of the
Pandya and Chola rulers discovered from various part of the Tamil Nadu throw
much light on the history of the Pandyan and Chola aggression in Kerala.The
Chola inscriptions discovered from the temples at Cholapuram, Cape Comorin,
Darsanamcopu, Tirunandikara, Suchindram, etc., bear witness to the Chola
Conquest in South Kerala.The undated Tillaisthanam record shows the friendly
relations between Aditya Chola and Sthanu Ravi.The Tiruvalangadu plate of
Rajendra Chola which mentions the Chola conoquest of Vizhinjam and the
Cholapuram record of Kulottunga Chola which refer to his retreat, to Kottar are
also important Chola records.Thus a study of the inscriptions would show that
they are of inestimable value in reconstructing the history of Kerala, particularly
of the PrePortuguese Period.
TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES
“Ancient India”, it is said, “Produced no Herodotus or Thucydides, no
“Livy or Tacitus”.This oft quoted statement is true of ancient Kerala as well.
None of the scholars of ancient Kerala took pains to compile genuine historical
narratives or accounts recording the events and developments of each epoch of
149
history in regular chronological order.The earliest historical treatise compiled in
Kerala by a native scholar is the TuhafatulMujahidin of Shaik Zainuddin, the
great Arabic scholar, who lived and worked at Ponnani in the 16
th
century A.D.
Kerala produced some works of historical importance during the period
between the 16
th
and 19
th
centuries.The work of Joseph Kathanar of 16
th
century
explains this history and customs of the then Christians in Kerala. Joseph
Kathanar was a native Christian priest from Kodungallur, who had visited Rome
and he produced an account of the Kerala Christians. It was mainly meant for
the Europeans.It is not a historical work, but historical inferences can be drawn
from it to study the Kerala society during the 16
th
century.
Digo Gonzalves, a Portuguese priest from Quilon wrote the work, ‘Historia
Da Malabar’ in the 17
th
century.It was an attempt to assess the position of the
Christians in Kerala from the background of the medieval social order.He tried to
analyse the caste structure, social groups, their customs, manners and other
aspects.Both the works of Joseph Kathanar and Gonzalves centralized the
Christian community in Kerala and gave no importance to the political
conditions of the periods in which they had prepared their works.
Granthavaris were the descriptive accounts maintained by the major ruling
families and temples in Kerala during the medieval period.They were prepared
mainly for reference to the management of land and political affairs. Several
‘devaswams’ and families had prepared their respective Granthavaris. The
tradition of preparing Granthavaris continued upto the British period in
Kerala.The Granthavaris give information about the political events that took
place in the contemporary period and the recent past.But they were looked upon
from the point of view of the institutions that prepared the Granthavaris. At
times they tried to describe the past history also to provide a connecting link to
the contemporary political events. While they relied upon legends and traditional
sources for recording the history of the ancient period, they were more historical
and accurate in dealing with the contemporary and recent periods.The
‘kshetrtakaryam curuna’ and Rajyakaryam Curuna’ of the Sri Padmanabha
temple record the events related with the temple and the political events that
150
Page 3
Karur Taluk in 1965 mentions three Chera rulers, viz., Atan Cheral Irumporai,
his son Perumkadumko and his son Ilamkadumko. It provides valuable
epigraphic evidence in support of Chera Genealogy as gleaned from Sangam
works.The inscriptions of the Chalukyan kings of the 6
th
, 7
th
and 8
th
centuries
refer to the defeat of several Kerala rulers by the Chalukyas and the subjugation
of the Kerala kingdom.A Sanskrit inscription in Kannada Script which has been
ascribed by scholars to the Western Chalukya king Kirtivarma II has been
obtained from an ancient Siva temple at Adur in Kasargod taluk and this
testifies to the Chalukya hegemony over the area. The inscriptions of the
Pandya and Chola rulers discovered from various part of the Tamil Nadu throw
much light on the history of the Pandyan and Chola aggression in Kerala.The
Chola inscriptions discovered from the temples at Cholapuram, Cape Comorin,
Darsanamcopu, Tirunandikara, Suchindram, etc., bear witness to the Chola
Conquest in South Kerala.The undated Tillaisthanam record shows the friendly
relations between Aditya Chola and Sthanu Ravi.The Tiruvalangadu plate of
Rajendra Chola which mentions the Chola conoquest of Vizhinjam and the
Cholapuram record of Kulottunga Chola which refer to his retreat, to Kottar are
also important Chola records.Thus a study of the inscriptions would show that
they are of inestimable value in reconstructing the history of Kerala, particularly
of the PrePortuguese Period.
TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES
“Ancient India”, it is said, “Produced no Herodotus or Thucydides, no
“Livy or Tacitus”.This oft quoted statement is true of ancient Kerala as well.
None of the scholars of ancient Kerala took pains to compile genuine historical
narratives or accounts recording the events and developments of each epoch of
149
history in regular chronological order.The earliest historical treatise compiled in
Kerala by a native scholar is the TuhafatulMujahidin of Shaik Zainuddin, the
great Arabic scholar, who lived and worked at Ponnani in the 16
th
century A.D.
Kerala produced some works of historical importance during the period
between the 16
th
and 19
th
centuries.The work of Joseph Kathanar of 16
th
century
explains this history and customs of the then Christians in Kerala. Joseph
Kathanar was a native Christian priest from Kodungallur, who had visited Rome
and he produced an account of the Kerala Christians. It was mainly meant for
the Europeans.It is not a historical work, but historical inferences can be drawn
from it to study the Kerala society during the 16
th
century.
Digo Gonzalves, a Portuguese priest from Quilon wrote the work, ‘Historia
Da Malabar’ in the 17
th
century.It was an attempt to assess the position of the
Christians in Kerala from the background of the medieval social order.He tried to
analyse the caste structure, social groups, their customs, manners and other
aspects.Both the works of Joseph Kathanar and Gonzalves centralized the
Christian community in Kerala and gave no importance to the political
conditions of the periods in which they had prepared their works.
Granthavaris were the descriptive accounts maintained by the major ruling
families and temples in Kerala during the medieval period.They were prepared
mainly for reference to the management of land and political affairs. Several
‘devaswams’ and families had prepared their respective Granthavaris. The
tradition of preparing Granthavaris continued upto the British period in
Kerala.The Granthavaris give information about the political events that took
place in the contemporary period and the recent past.But they were looked upon
from the point of view of the institutions that prepared the Granthavaris. At
times they tried to describe the past history also to provide a connecting link to
the contemporary political events. While they relied upon legends and traditional
sources for recording the history of the ancient period, they were more historical
and accurate in dealing with the contemporary and recent periods.The
‘kshetrtakaryam curuna’ and Rajyakaryam Curuna’ of the Sri Padmanabha
temple record the events related with the temple and the political events that
150
were taking place outside the temple. The Granthavaris are useful for the study
of the history of the medieval period in Kerala history.
Traditional Sources
Historians of the orthodox school in Kerala and elsewhere relied till
recently on the different versions of the Malayalam work Keralolpathi and the
Sanskrit work Keralamahatmyam in reconstructing early Kerala history, but
both these works are of doubtful or no historical value.Though they deal with
events and personages supposed to belong to early periods of Kerala history,
they are not contemporary works transmitting information of historical validity.
They abound in historical inaccuracies, improbabilities and anachronisms and
serve only to confuse the student of history.Even Logan, the author of the
Malabar Manual, who has given a detailed account of the traditional early
history of Kerala on the basis of the information contained in the Keralolpathi,
rejects the work as a “farrago of legendary nonsense having for its definite aim
the securing for the Brahmin caste of unbounded power and influence in the
country”.According to K.P. Padmanabha Menon it is “an illdigested and
uncollated collection of different versions huddled together in inextricable
confusion”.“It has to be remembered that the Keralolpathi and the
Keralamahatmyam were composed only as recently as the 18
th
or the 19
th
century and hence they have not any real value as sources of early Kerala
history.In view of the paucity of real historical sources and the futility of the
traditional sources mentioned above, students of history have to depend on
diverse materials for the reconstruction of the history of Kerala, particularly of
the ancient and medieval periods.These sources may be classified under two
major heads, viz., Literature and Archaeology.
LITERATURE
The literary sources may themselves be classified into two heads, viz.,
indigenous and foreign.The former may be found mainly in Tamil, Sanskrit, and
Malayalam.
Tamil Literature
151
Page 4
Karur Taluk in 1965 mentions three Chera rulers, viz., Atan Cheral Irumporai,
his son Perumkadumko and his son Ilamkadumko. It provides valuable
epigraphic evidence in support of Chera Genealogy as gleaned from Sangam
works.The inscriptions of the Chalukyan kings of the 6
th
, 7
th
and 8
th
centuries
refer to the defeat of several Kerala rulers by the Chalukyas and the subjugation
of the Kerala kingdom.A Sanskrit inscription in Kannada Script which has been
ascribed by scholars to the Western Chalukya king Kirtivarma II has been
obtained from an ancient Siva temple at Adur in Kasargod taluk and this
testifies to the Chalukya hegemony over the area. The inscriptions of the
Pandya and Chola rulers discovered from various part of the Tamil Nadu throw
much light on the history of the Pandyan and Chola aggression in Kerala.The
Chola inscriptions discovered from the temples at Cholapuram, Cape Comorin,
Darsanamcopu, Tirunandikara, Suchindram, etc., bear witness to the Chola
Conquest in South Kerala.The undated Tillaisthanam record shows the friendly
relations between Aditya Chola and Sthanu Ravi.The Tiruvalangadu plate of
Rajendra Chola which mentions the Chola conoquest of Vizhinjam and the
Cholapuram record of Kulottunga Chola which refer to his retreat, to Kottar are
also important Chola records.Thus a study of the inscriptions would show that
they are of inestimable value in reconstructing the history of Kerala, particularly
of the PrePortuguese Period.
TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES
“Ancient India”, it is said, “Produced no Herodotus or Thucydides, no
“Livy or Tacitus”.This oft quoted statement is true of ancient Kerala as well.
None of the scholars of ancient Kerala took pains to compile genuine historical
narratives or accounts recording the events and developments of each epoch of
149
history in regular chronological order.The earliest historical treatise compiled in
Kerala by a native scholar is the TuhafatulMujahidin of Shaik Zainuddin, the
great Arabic scholar, who lived and worked at Ponnani in the 16
th
century A.D.
Kerala produced some works of historical importance during the period
between the 16
th
and 19
th
centuries.The work of Joseph Kathanar of 16
th
century
explains this history and customs of the then Christians in Kerala. Joseph
Kathanar was a native Christian priest from Kodungallur, who had visited Rome
and he produced an account of the Kerala Christians. It was mainly meant for
the Europeans.It is not a historical work, but historical inferences can be drawn
from it to study the Kerala society during the 16
th
century.
Digo Gonzalves, a Portuguese priest from Quilon wrote the work, ‘Historia
Da Malabar’ in the 17
th
century.It was an attempt to assess the position of the
Christians in Kerala from the background of the medieval social order.He tried to
analyse the caste structure, social groups, their customs, manners and other
aspects.Both the works of Joseph Kathanar and Gonzalves centralized the
Christian community in Kerala and gave no importance to the political
conditions of the periods in which they had prepared their works.
Granthavaris were the descriptive accounts maintained by the major ruling
families and temples in Kerala during the medieval period.They were prepared
mainly for reference to the management of land and political affairs. Several
‘devaswams’ and families had prepared their respective Granthavaris. The
tradition of preparing Granthavaris continued upto the British period in
Kerala.The Granthavaris give information about the political events that took
place in the contemporary period and the recent past.But they were looked upon
from the point of view of the institutions that prepared the Granthavaris. At
times they tried to describe the past history also to provide a connecting link to
the contemporary political events. While they relied upon legends and traditional
sources for recording the history of the ancient period, they were more historical
and accurate in dealing with the contemporary and recent periods.The
‘kshetrtakaryam curuna’ and Rajyakaryam Curuna’ of the Sri Padmanabha
temple record the events related with the temple and the political events that
150
were taking place outside the temple. The Granthavaris are useful for the study
of the history of the medieval period in Kerala history.
Traditional Sources
Historians of the orthodox school in Kerala and elsewhere relied till
recently on the different versions of the Malayalam work Keralolpathi and the
Sanskrit work Keralamahatmyam in reconstructing early Kerala history, but
both these works are of doubtful or no historical value.Though they deal with
events and personages supposed to belong to early periods of Kerala history,
they are not contemporary works transmitting information of historical validity.
They abound in historical inaccuracies, improbabilities and anachronisms and
serve only to confuse the student of history.Even Logan, the author of the
Malabar Manual, who has given a detailed account of the traditional early
history of Kerala on the basis of the information contained in the Keralolpathi,
rejects the work as a “farrago of legendary nonsense having for its definite aim
the securing for the Brahmin caste of unbounded power and influence in the
country”.According to K.P. Padmanabha Menon it is “an illdigested and
uncollated collection of different versions huddled together in inextricable
confusion”.“It has to be remembered that the Keralolpathi and the
Keralamahatmyam were composed only as recently as the 18
th
or the 19
th
century and hence they have not any real value as sources of early Kerala
history.In view of the paucity of real historical sources and the futility of the
traditional sources mentioned above, students of history have to depend on
diverse materials for the reconstruction of the history of Kerala, particularly of
the ancient and medieval periods.These sources may be classified under two
major heads, viz., Literature and Archaeology.
LITERATURE
The literary sources may themselves be classified into two heads, viz.,
indigenous and foreign.The former may be found mainly in Tamil, Sanskrit, and
Malayalam.
Tamil Literature
151
The early Tamil works form one of themost important sources of
information for the history of ancient Kerala.Ancient Tamil literature is replete
with references to the landof Kerala, its rulers and its people.It unfolds the
picture f a settled society and welldeveloped civilization.The Tamil works which
are of particular value in this connection are those of the Sangam age which
covers roughly the first five centuries of the Christian era and many of them
were in fact composed in Kerala itself. Among Tamil works the most important
are the Patittupattu, the Agananuru,The Purananuru and the
Silappadikaram.The Patittupattu is an anthology of 100 poems divided into 10
equal sections each of which was composed by a particular poet in praise of a
Chera king.It deals exclusively with the Cheras and as such is the most valuable
Tamil work for the reconstruction of the political history of ancient Kerala.The
Agananuru is a collection of 400 love poems of 13 to 31 lines each while the
Purananuru is a collection of 400 poems dealing with external matters like war,
government, etc., each poem running into 4 to 40 lines.These works also give us
interesting glimpses of early Chera history. Among the poets who composed
poems for Sangam works the names of Paranar, Kapilar and Auvvaiyar deserve
special mention as several of their songs deal with Kerala life and culture.The
Kuruntokai and the Nattinai, both collections of love poems, the former 401 and
the latter 400 in number, also yield some useful information on early Kerala
history.The Silappadikaram of Ilango Adikal (heirapparent), who is alleged to be
the younger brother of Senkuttuvan, the Chera king, who figures in the epic, is
another Tamil work which throws some light on the history and geography of
ancient Kerala.
Some of the Tamil works composed in the postSangam period also supply
information on Chera history.The Muthollayiram composed about 800 A.D.
makes references to the Cheras and their capital Vanchi.The hymns of othe
Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alwars contain references to some of the holy
shrines of Kerala. The Perumal Tirumozi by Kulasekhara Alwar (early 9
th
century
A.D), the great Vaishnava saint and founder of the Second Chera Empire,
provides some historical information.The Vaishnava Saint Nammalvar
152
Page 5
Karur Taluk in 1965 mentions three Chera rulers, viz., Atan Cheral Irumporai,
his son Perumkadumko and his son Ilamkadumko. It provides valuable
epigraphic evidence in support of Chera Genealogy as gleaned from Sangam
works.The inscriptions of the Chalukyan kings of the 6
th
, 7
th
and 8
th
centuries
refer to the defeat of several Kerala rulers by the Chalukyas and the subjugation
of the Kerala kingdom.A Sanskrit inscription in Kannada Script which has been
ascribed by scholars to the Western Chalukya king Kirtivarma II has been
obtained from an ancient Siva temple at Adur in Kasargod taluk and this
testifies to the Chalukya hegemony over the area. The inscriptions of the
Pandya and Chola rulers discovered from various part of the Tamil Nadu throw
much light on the history of the Pandyan and Chola aggression in Kerala.The
Chola inscriptions discovered from the temples at Cholapuram, Cape Comorin,
Darsanamcopu, Tirunandikara, Suchindram, etc., bear witness to the Chola
Conquest in South Kerala.The undated Tillaisthanam record shows the friendly
relations between Aditya Chola and Sthanu Ravi.The Tiruvalangadu plate of
Rajendra Chola which mentions the Chola conoquest of Vizhinjam and the
Cholapuram record of Kulottunga Chola which refer to his retreat, to Kottar are
also important Chola records.Thus a study of the inscriptions would show that
they are of inestimable value in reconstructing the history of Kerala, particularly
of the PrePortuguese Period.
TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES
“Ancient India”, it is said, “Produced no Herodotus or Thucydides, no
“Livy or Tacitus”.This oft quoted statement is true of ancient Kerala as well.
None of the scholars of ancient Kerala took pains to compile genuine historical
narratives or accounts recording the events and developments of each epoch of
149
history in regular chronological order.The earliest historical treatise compiled in
Kerala by a native scholar is the TuhafatulMujahidin of Shaik Zainuddin, the
great Arabic scholar, who lived and worked at Ponnani in the 16
th
century A.D.
Kerala produced some works of historical importance during the period
between the 16
th
and 19
th
centuries.The work of Joseph Kathanar of 16
th
century
explains this history and customs of the then Christians in Kerala. Joseph
Kathanar was a native Christian priest from Kodungallur, who had visited Rome
and he produced an account of the Kerala Christians. It was mainly meant for
the Europeans.It is not a historical work, but historical inferences can be drawn
from it to study the Kerala society during the 16
th
century.
Digo Gonzalves, a Portuguese priest from Quilon wrote the work, ‘Historia
Da Malabar’ in the 17
th
century.It was an attempt to assess the position of the
Christians in Kerala from the background of the medieval social order.He tried to
analyse the caste structure, social groups, their customs, manners and other
aspects.Both the works of Joseph Kathanar and Gonzalves centralized the
Christian community in Kerala and gave no importance to the political
conditions of the periods in which they had prepared their works.
Granthavaris were the descriptive accounts maintained by the major ruling
families and temples in Kerala during the medieval period.They were prepared
mainly for reference to the management of land and political affairs. Several
‘devaswams’ and families had prepared their respective Granthavaris. The
tradition of preparing Granthavaris continued upto the British period in
Kerala.The Granthavaris give information about the political events that took
place in the contemporary period and the recent past.But they were looked upon
from the point of view of the institutions that prepared the Granthavaris. At
times they tried to describe the past history also to provide a connecting link to
the contemporary political events. While they relied upon legends and traditional
sources for recording the history of the ancient period, they were more historical
and accurate in dealing with the contemporary and recent periods.The
‘kshetrtakaryam curuna’ and Rajyakaryam Curuna’ of the Sri Padmanabha
temple record the events related with the temple and the political events that
150
were taking place outside the temple. The Granthavaris are useful for the study
of the history of the medieval period in Kerala history.
Traditional Sources
Historians of the orthodox school in Kerala and elsewhere relied till
recently on the different versions of the Malayalam work Keralolpathi and the
Sanskrit work Keralamahatmyam in reconstructing early Kerala history, but
both these works are of doubtful or no historical value.Though they deal with
events and personages supposed to belong to early periods of Kerala history,
they are not contemporary works transmitting information of historical validity.
They abound in historical inaccuracies, improbabilities and anachronisms and
serve only to confuse the student of history.Even Logan, the author of the
Malabar Manual, who has given a detailed account of the traditional early
history of Kerala on the basis of the information contained in the Keralolpathi,
rejects the work as a “farrago of legendary nonsense having for its definite aim
the securing for the Brahmin caste of unbounded power and influence in the
country”.According to K.P. Padmanabha Menon it is “an illdigested and
uncollated collection of different versions huddled together in inextricable
confusion”.“It has to be remembered that the Keralolpathi and the
Keralamahatmyam were composed only as recently as the 18
th
or the 19
th
century and hence they have not any real value as sources of early Kerala
history.In view of the paucity of real historical sources and the futility of the
traditional sources mentioned above, students of history have to depend on
diverse materials for the reconstruction of the history of Kerala, particularly of
the ancient and medieval periods.These sources may be classified under two
major heads, viz., Literature and Archaeology.
LITERATURE
The literary sources may themselves be classified into two heads, viz.,
indigenous and foreign.The former may be found mainly in Tamil, Sanskrit, and
Malayalam.
Tamil Literature
151
The early Tamil works form one of themost important sources of
information for the history of ancient Kerala.Ancient Tamil literature is replete
with references to the landof Kerala, its rulers and its people.It unfolds the
picture f a settled society and welldeveloped civilization.The Tamil works which
are of particular value in this connection are those of the Sangam age which
covers roughly the first five centuries of the Christian era and many of them
were in fact composed in Kerala itself. Among Tamil works the most important
are the Patittupattu, the Agananuru,The Purananuru and the
Silappadikaram.The Patittupattu is an anthology of 100 poems divided into 10
equal sections each of which was composed by a particular poet in praise of a
Chera king.It deals exclusively with the Cheras and as such is the most valuable
Tamil work for the reconstruction of the political history of ancient Kerala.The
Agananuru is a collection of 400 love poems of 13 to 31 lines each while the
Purananuru is a collection of 400 poems dealing with external matters like war,
government, etc., each poem running into 4 to 40 lines.These works also give us
interesting glimpses of early Chera history. Among the poets who composed
poems for Sangam works the names of Paranar, Kapilar and Auvvaiyar deserve
special mention as several of their songs deal with Kerala life and culture.The
Kuruntokai and the Nattinai, both collections of love poems, the former 401 and
the latter 400 in number, also yield some useful information on early Kerala
history.The Silappadikaram of Ilango Adikal (heirapparent), who is alleged to be
the younger brother of Senkuttuvan, the Chera king, who figures in the epic, is
another Tamil work which throws some light on the history and geography of
ancient Kerala.
Some of the Tamil works composed in the postSangam period also supply
information on Chera history.The Muthollayiram composed about 800 A.D.
makes references to the Cheras and their capital Vanchi.The hymns of othe
Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alwars contain references to some of the holy
shrines of Kerala. The Perumal Tirumozi by Kulasekhara Alwar (early 9
th
century
A.D), the great Vaishnava saint and founder of the Second Chera Empire,
provides some historical information.The Vaishnava Saint Nammalvar
152
(Sathakopa) who flourished towards the close of the 9
th
century A.D. has sung
songs in praise of the famous Vaishnava Shrines of Kerala including that of Sri
Padmanabha at Trivandrum.His Tiruvaimozhi may be particularly mentioned in
this context. The Periyapuranam of Sekkilar (12
th
century A.D) narrates the story
of Cheraman Perumal Nayanar who was himself one of the Chera rulers.The
work refers to the Chera capital of Tiruvanchikulam and thejoint pilgrimages of
Cheraman Perumal Nayanar and Sundaramurthi Nayanar.Ottakuthan, a Tamil
poet of the 12
th
century, refers in his Takkayagapparani to the transfer of the
capital of the Cheras from Vanchi to Makotai and the reference provides a
valuable clue to the identification of Vanchimutur, the original capital of the first
Chera Empire in Kerala rather than in Tamil Nadu.
Sanskrit Works
The earliest Sanskrit work, which contains reference to Kerala, is perhaps
the Aitareya Aranyaka.It refers to the Cherapadah as one of the three peoples
who violated some of the ancient injunctions.The great epics of the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata also contain references to Kerala.It is stated in the former
that Kerala was one of the countries to which Sugriva sent emissaries in search
of Sita.The Mahabharata refers to the Chera king as having supplied provisions
and large contingents of fighting men for the belligerent armies in the battle of
Kurukshetra.Katyayana (4
th
century B.C) and Patanjali (2
nd
century B.C) also
show acquaintance with the geography of Kerala, though Panini (7
th
century B.C.
if not earlier) does not make any mention of the land.The reference in Kautilya’s
Arthasastra (4
th
century B.C) to the river Churni as one of the rivers of the land
where pearls could be found has already been mentioned.The Puranas like Vayu,
Matsya, Padma, Skanda and Markandeya also make mention of Kerala. The
Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, which contains a beautiful description of Kerala, bears
evidence of the fact that the land had become familiar to writers in the north by
the 4
th
century A.D.
Sanskrit works composed in Kerala have helped in the elucidation of some
of the complex problems in Kerala History.The Tapatisamvarana and
Subhadradhananjaya, two dramas written by the royal dramatist Kulasekhara
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