Old NCERT Textbook (RS Sharma): The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and Social Formation

 Page 1


CHAPTER 8 
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and 
Social Formation 
Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 B.C.) 
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age 
of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas. The 
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have described the early 
Vedic age. For the purpose of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune, and this 
modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in 
post-Rig Vedic times, two other collections were composed. These were the Yajur Veda 
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also 
rituals that accompany their recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in 
which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and 
diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. The Vedic 
Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmanas. 
These are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious aspects of rituals. All 
these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin circa 1000–600 B.C. In the 
same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have brought to light nearly 500 
sites inhabited for the first time. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because 
they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey 
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts 
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we can form an idea of the life of the people in the first 
half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, 
Haryana, and Rajasthan. 
 
8.1 Painted Grey Ware 
Page 2


CHAPTER 8 
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and 
Social Formation 
Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 B.C.) 
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age 
of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas. The 
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have described the early 
Vedic age. For the purpose of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune, and this 
modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in 
post-Rig Vedic times, two other collections were composed. These were the Yajur Veda 
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also 
rituals that accompany their recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in 
which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and 
diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. The Vedic 
Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmanas. 
These are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious aspects of rituals. All 
these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin circa 1000–600 B.C. In the 
same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have brought to light nearly 500 
sites inhabited for the first time. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because 
they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey 
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts 
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we can form an idea of the life of the people in the first 
half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, 
Haryana, and Rajasthan. 
 
8.1 Painted Grey Ware 
The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar 
Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, 
combined and thus formed the Kuru people. In the beginning, they lived between the 
Sarasvati and the Drishadvati, just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon, the Kurus occupied Delhi 
and the upper portion of the Doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. 
Gradually, they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle 
portion of the Doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi and the 
upper and middle parts of the Doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur, situated in the 
district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of the Bharata, 
which is the main theme of the great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to 
have been fought around 950 B.C. between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of 
them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result, practically the whole of the Kuru clan was wiped 
out. 
Excavations at Hastinapur, dated to the period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., have revealed 
settlements and faint beginnings of town life. But they do not at all match the description of 
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the epic was finally compiled much later, in about the 
fourth century A.D., when material life had advanced significantly. In later Vedic times, 
people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks. The mud structures that have been discovered at 
Hastinapur could not be imposing or lasting. From traditions, we learn that Hastinapur was 
flooded, and the remnants of the Kuru clan moved to Kausambi near Allahabad. 
The Panchala kingdom, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and 
Farukhabad, is famous for its philosopher kings and brahmana theologians. 
Towards the end of the later Vedic period, around 600 B.C., the Vedic people spread from the 
Doab further east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. Although 
Kasi is not mentioned in Vedic literature, Ayodhya is associated with the story of Rama. In 
eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar, the Vedic people had to contend against a people who 
used copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh, they 
possibly came up against people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper implements; 
these people had been living there from about 1800 B.C. They possibly also encountered thin 
habitations of some people using black-and-red ware. It is suggested that at a few places they 
came against the users of the late Harappan culture, but these people seem to represent a 
conglomerate culture that cannot be characterized as purely Harappan. Whoever the 
opponents of the later Vedic peoples were, they evidently did not occupy any large and 
compact area, and their number in the upper Gangetic basin does not seem to have been large. 
The Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of their expansion because they used iron 
weapons and horse-drawn chariots. 
The PGW-Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy 
From around 1000 B.C., iron was used in the Gandhara area in Pakistan. Iron implements 
buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers. They have also been found 
in Baluchistan. At about the same time, the use of iron appeared in eastern Punjab, western 
Page 3


CHAPTER 8 
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and 
Social Formation 
Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 B.C.) 
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age 
of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas. The 
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have described the early 
Vedic age. For the purpose of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune, and this 
modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in 
post-Rig Vedic times, two other collections were composed. These were the Yajur Veda 
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also 
rituals that accompany their recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in 
which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and 
diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. The Vedic 
Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmanas. 
These are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious aspects of rituals. All 
these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin circa 1000–600 B.C. In the 
same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have brought to light nearly 500 
sites inhabited for the first time. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because 
they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey 
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts 
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we can form an idea of the life of the people in the first 
half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, 
Haryana, and Rajasthan. 
 
8.1 Painted Grey Ware 
The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar 
Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, 
combined and thus formed the Kuru people. In the beginning, they lived between the 
Sarasvati and the Drishadvati, just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon, the Kurus occupied Delhi 
and the upper portion of the Doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. 
Gradually, they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle 
portion of the Doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi and the 
upper and middle parts of the Doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur, situated in the 
district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of the Bharata, 
which is the main theme of the great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to 
have been fought around 950 B.C. between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of 
them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result, practically the whole of the Kuru clan was wiped 
out. 
Excavations at Hastinapur, dated to the period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., have revealed 
settlements and faint beginnings of town life. But they do not at all match the description of 
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the epic was finally compiled much later, in about the 
fourth century A.D., when material life had advanced significantly. In later Vedic times, 
people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks. The mud structures that have been discovered at 
Hastinapur could not be imposing or lasting. From traditions, we learn that Hastinapur was 
flooded, and the remnants of the Kuru clan moved to Kausambi near Allahabad. 
The Panchala kingdom, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and 
Farukhabad, is famous for its philosopher kings and brahmana theologians. 
Towards the end of the later Vedic period, around 600 B.C., the Vedic people spread from the 
Doab further east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. Although 
Kasi is not mentioned in Vedic literature, Ayodhya is associated with the story of Rama. In 
eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar, the Vedic people had to contend against a people who 
used copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh, they 
possibly came up against people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper implements; 
these people had been living there from about 1800 B.C. They possibly also encountered thin 
habitations of some people using black-and-red ware. It is suggested that at a few places they 
came against the users of the late Harappan culture, but these people seem to represent a 
conglomerate culture that cannot be characterized as purely Harappan. Whoever the 
opponents of the later Vedic peoples were, they evidently did not occupy any large and 
compact area, and their number in the upper Gangetic basin does not seem to have been large. 
The Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of their expansion because they used iron 
weapons and horse-drawn chariots. 
The PGW-Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy 
From around 1000 B.C., iron was used in the Gandhara area in Pakistan. Iron implements 
buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers. They have also been found 
in Baluchistan. At about the same time, the use of iron appeared in eastern Punjab, western 
Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Excavations show that iron weapons such as arrowheads and 
spearheads came to be commonly used in western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. With 
iron weapons, the Vedic people may have defeated the few adversaries they faced in the 
upper portion of the Doab. The iron axe may have been used to clear the forests in the upper 
Gangetic basin, although, because of rainfall ranging between 35 cm to 65 cm, these forests 
may not have been so thick. Towards the end of the Vedic period, knowledge of iron spread 
to eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha. Iron implements have been discovered in this area from 
the seventh century B.C., and the metal itself is called syama or krishna ayas in the later 
Vedic texts.
 
Painted Grey Ware Map  
Although very few agricultural tools made of iron have been found, there is no doubt that 
agriculture was the chief means of livelihood of the later Vedic people. Later Vedic texts 
speak of six, eight, twelve, and even twenty-four oxen yoked to the plough. This may be an 
exaggeration. Ploughing was done with the help of the wooden ploughshare, which could 
possibly work in the light soil of the upper Gangetic basin. Enough bullocks could not be 
available because of cattle slaughter in sacrifices. Therefore, agriculture was primitive, but 
there is no doubt about its wide prevalence. The Satapatha Brahmana speaks at length about 
the ploughing rituals. According to ancient legends, Janaka, the king of Videha and father of 
Page 4


CHAPTER 8 
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and 
Social Formation 
Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 B.C.) 
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age 
of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas. The 
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have described the early 
Vedic age. For the purpose of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune, and this 
modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in 
post-Rig Vedic times, two other collections were composed. These were the Yajur Veda 
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also 
rituals that accompany their recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in 
which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and 
diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. The Vedic 
Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmanas. 
These are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious aspects of rituals. All 
these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin circa 1000–600 B.C. In the 
same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have brought to light nearly 500 
sites inhabited for the first time. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because 
they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey 
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts 
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we can form an idea of the life of the people in the first 
half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, 
Haryana, and Rajasthan. 
 
8.1 Painted Grey Ware 
The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar 
Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, 
combined and thus formed the Kuru people. In the beginning, they lived between the 
Sarasvati and the Drishadvati, just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon, the Kurus occupied Delhi 
and the upper portion of the Doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. 
Gradually, they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle 
portion of the Doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi and the 
upper and middle parts of the Doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur, situated in the 
district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of the Bharata, 
which is the main theme of the great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to 
have been fought around 950 B.C. between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of 
them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result, practically the whole of the Kuru clan was wiped 
out. 
Excavations at Hastinapur, dated to the period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., have revealed 
settlements and faint beginnings of town life. But they do not at all match the description of 
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the epic was finally compiled much later, in about the 
fourth century A.D., when material life had advanced significantly. In later Vedic times, 
people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks. The mud structures that have been discovered at 
Hastinapur could not be imposing or lasting. From traditions, we learn that Hastinapur was 
flooded, and the remnants of the Kuru clan moved to Kausambi near Allahabad. 
The Panchala kingdom, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and 
Farukhabad, is famous for its philosopher kings and brahmana theologians. 
Towards the end of the later Vedic period, around 600 B.C., the Vedic people spread from the 
Doab further east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. Although 
Kasi is not mentioned in Vedic literature, Ayodhya is associated with the story of Rama. In 
eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar, the Vedic people had to contend against a people who 
used copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh, they 
possibly came up against people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper implements; 
these people had been living there from about 1800 B.C. They possibly also encountered thin 
habitations of some people using black-and-red ware. It is suggested that at a few places they 
came against the users of the late Harappan culture, but these people seem to represent a 
conglomerate culture that cannot be characterized as purely Harappan. Whoever the 
opponents of the later Vedic peoples were, they evidently did not occupy any large and 
compact area, and their number in the upper Gangetic basin does not seem to have been large. 
The Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of their expansion because they used iron 
weapons and horse-drawn chariots. 
The PGW-Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy 
From around 1000 B.C., iron was used in the Gandhara area in Pakistan. Iron implements 
buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers. They have also been found 
in Baluchistan. At about the same time, the use of iron appeared in eastern Punjab, western 
Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Excavations show that iron weapons such as arrowheads and 
spearheads came to be commonly used in western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. With 
iron weapons, the Vedic people may have defeated the few adversaries they faced in the 
upper portion of the Doab. The iron axe may have been used to clear the forests in the upper 
Gangetic basin, although, because of rainfall ranging between 35 cm to 65 cm, these forests 
may not have been so thick. Towards the end of the Vedic period, knowledge of iron spread 
to eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha. Iron implements have been discovered in this area from 
the seventh century B.C., and the metal itself is called syama or krishna ayas in the later 
Vedic texts.
 
Painted Grey Ware Map  
Although very few agricultural tools made of iron have been found, there is no doubt that 
agriculture was the chief means of livelihood of the later Vedic people. Later Vedic texts 
speak of six, eight, twelve, and even twenty-four oxen yoked to the plough. This may be an 
exaggeration. Ploughing was done with the help of the wooden ploughshare, which could 
possibly work in the light soil of the upper Gangetic basin. Enough bullocks could not be 
available because of cattle slaughter in sacrifices. Therefore, agriculture was primitive, but 
there is no doubt about its wide prevalence. The Satapatha Brahmana speaks at length about 
the ploughing rituals. According to ancient legends, Janaka, the king of Videha and father of 
Sita, lent his hand to the plough. In those days, even kings and princes did not hesitate to take 
to manual labor. Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is called Haladhara or wielder of the 
plough. In later times, ploughing came to be prohibited for members of the upper varnas. 
 
Painted Grey Ware Iron Objects  
The Vedic people continued to produce barley, but during this period, rice and wheat became 
their chief crops. In subsequent times, wheat became the staple food of the people in Punjab 
and western Uttar Pradesh. For the first time, the Vedic people came to be acquainted with 
rice in the Doab. It is called vrihi in the Vedic texts, and its remains recovered from 
Hastinapur belong to the eighth century B.C. The use of rice is recommended in rituals, but 
that of wheat only rarely. Various kinds of lentils were also produced by the later Vedic 
people. 
The later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts. We hear of smiths and smelters, 
who certainly had something to do with ironworking from about 1000 B.C. Numerous copper 
tools from the pre-1000 B.C. period found in western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar might suggest 
the existence of coppersmiths in both Vedic and non-Vedic societies. The Vedic people may 
have used the copper mines of Khetri in Rajasthan. In any case, copper was one of the first 
metals to be used by the Vedic people. Copper objects have been found in Painted Grey Ware 
sites. They were used mainly for war and hunting, and also for ornaments. 
Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on a wide scale. Leatherwork, pottery, 
and carpenter’s work made great progress. The later Vedic people were acquainted with four 
types of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware, and red ware. 
The last type of pottery was most popular with them and has been found almost all over 
western Uttar Pradesh. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as 
Painted Grey Ware. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals, for 
eating, or for both, by the upper orders. Glass hoards and bangles found in the PGW layers 
may have been used as prestige objects by a few persons. On the whole, both Vedic texts and 
excavations indicate the cultivation of specialized crafts. Jewel-workers are also mentioned in 
later Vedic texts, and they possibly catered to the needs of the richer sections of society. 
Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later Vedic people to lead a settled life. 
Excavations and explorations give us some idea about settlements in later Vedic times. 
Page 5


CHAPTER 8 
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and 
Social Formation 
Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 B.C.) 
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age 
of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas. The 
Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we have described the early 
Vedic age. For the purpose of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were set to tune, and this 
modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition to the Sama Veda, in 
post-Rig Vedic times, two other collections were composed. These were the Yajur Veda 
Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also 
rituals that accompany their recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in 
which they arose. The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and 
diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. The Vedic 
Samhitas were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmanas. 
These are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious aspects of rituals. All 
these later Vedic texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin circa 1000–600 B.C. In the 
same period and in the same area, digging and exploration have brought to light nearly 500 
sites inhabited for the first time. These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because 
they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey 
pottery. They also used iron weapons. With the combined evidence from the later Vedic texts 
and PGW iron-phase archaeology, we can form an idea of the life of the people in the first 
half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, 
Haryana, and Rajasthan. 
 
8.1 Painted Grey Ware 
The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar 
Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, 
combined and thus formed the Kuru people. In the beginning, they lived between the 
Sarasvati and the Drishadvati, just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon, the Kurus occupied Delhi 
and the upper portion of the Doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. 
Gradually, they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle 
portion of the Doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi and the 
upper and middle parts of the Doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur, situated in the 
district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of the Bharata, 
which is the main theme of the great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to 
have been fought around 950 B.C. between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of 
them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result, practically the whole of the Kuru clan was wiped 
out. 
Excavations at Hastinapur, dated to the period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., have revealed 
settlements and faint beginnings of town life. But they do not at all match the description of 
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the epic was finally compiled much later, in about the 
fourth century A.D., when material life had advanced significantly. In later Vedic times, 
people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks. The mud structures that have been discovered at 
Hastinapur could not be imposing or lasting. From traditions, we learn that Hastinapur was 
flooded, and the remnants of the Kuru clan moved to Kausambi near Allahabad. 
The Panchala kingdom, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and 
Farukhabad, is famous for its philosopher kings and brahmana theologians. 
Towards the end of the later Vedic period, around 600 B.C., the Vedic people spread from the 
Doab further east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. Although 
Kasi is not mentioned in Vedic literature, Ayodhya is associated with the story of Rama. In 
eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar, the Vedic people had to contend against a people who 
used copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh, they 
possibly came up against people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper implements; 
these people had been living there from about 1800 B.C. They possibly also encountered thin 
habitations of some people using black-and-red ware. It is suggested that at a few places they 
came against the users of the late Harappan culture, but these people seem to represent a 
conglomerate culture that cannot be characterized as purely Harappan. Whoever the 
opponents of the later Vedic peoples were, they evidently did not occupy any large and 
compact area, and their number in the upper Gangetic basin does not seem to have been large. 
The Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of their expansion because they used iron 
weapons and horse-drawn chariots. 
The PGW-Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy 
From around 1000 B.C., iron was used in the Gandhara area in Pakistan. Iron implements 
buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers. They have also been found 
in Baluchistan. At about the same time, the use of iron appeared in eastern Punjab, western 
Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Excavations show that iron weapons such as arrowheads and 
spearheads came to be commonly used in western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. With 
iron weapons, the Vedic people may have defeated the few adversaries they faced in the 
upper portion of the Doab. The iron axe may have been used to clear the forests in the upper 
Gangetic basin, although, because of rainfall ranging between 35 cm to 65 cm, these forests 
may not have been so thick. Towards the end of the Vedic period, knowledge of iron spread 
to eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha. Iron implements have been discovered in this area from 
the seventh century B.C., and the metal itself is called syama or krishna ayas in the later 
Vedic texts.
 
Painted Grey Ware Map  
Although very few agricultural tools made of iron have been found, there is no doubt that 
agriculture was the chief means of livelihood of the later Vedic people. Later Vedic texts 
speak of six, eight, twelve, and even twenty-four oxen yoked to the plough. This may be an 
exaggeration. Ploughing was done with the help of the wooden ploughshare, which could 
possibly work in the light soil of the upper Gangetic basin. Enough bullocks could not be 
available because of cattle slaughter in sacrifices. Therefore, agriculture was primitive, but 
there is no doubt about its wide prevalence. The Satapatha Brahmana speaks at length about 
the ploughing rituals. According to ancient legends, Janaka, the king of Videha and father of 
Sita, lent his hand to the plough. In those days, even kings and princes did not hesitate to take 
to manual labor. Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is called Haladhara or wielder of the 
plough. In later times, ploughing came to be prohibited for members of the upper varnas. 
 
Painted Grey Ware Iron Objects  
The Vedic people continued to produce barley, but during this period, rice and wheat became 
their chief crops. In subsequent times, wheat became the staple food of the people in Punjab 
and western Uttar Pradesh. For the first time, the Vedic people came to be acquainted with 
rice in the Doab. It is called vrihi in the Vedic texts, and its remains recovered from 
Hastinapur belong to the eighth century B.C. The use of rice is recommended in rituals, but 
that of wheat only rarely. Various kinds of lentils were also produced by the later Vedic 
people. 
The later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts. We hear of smiths and smelters, 
who certainly had something to do with ironworking from about 1000 B.C. Numerous copper 
tools from the pre-1000 B.C. period found in western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar might suggest 
the existence of coppersmiths in both Vedic and non-Vedic societies. The Vedic people may 
have used the copper mines of Khetri in Rajasthan. In any case, copper was one of the first 
metals to be used by the Vedic people. Copper objects have been found in Painted Grey Ware 
sites. They were used mainly for war and hunting, and also for ornaments. 
Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on a wide scale. Leatherwork, pottery, 
and carpenter’s work made great progress. The later Vedic people were acquainted with four 
types of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware, and red ware. 
The last type of pottery was most popular with them and has been found almost all over 
western Uttar Pradesh. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as 
Painted Grey Ware. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals, for 
eating, or for both, by the upper orders. Glass hoards and bangles found in the PGW layers 
may have been used as prestige objects by a few persons. On the whole, both Vedic texts and 
excavations indicate the cultivation of specialized crafts. Jewel-workers are also mentioned in 
later Vedic texts, and they possibly catered to the needs of the richer sections of society. 
Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later Vedic people to lead a settled life. 
Excavations and explorations give us some idea about settlements in later Vedic times. 
Widespread Painted Grey Ware sites are found not only in western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, 
which was the Kuru-Panchala area, but also in the adjoining parts of Punjab and Haryana, 
which was the Madra area, and in those of Rajasthan, which was the Matsya area. Altogether, 
we can count nearly 500 sites, mostly belonging to the upper Gangetic basin. Only a few 
sites, such as Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, and Noh, have been excavated. Since the thickness of 
the material remains of habitation ranges from one meter to three meters, it seems that these 
settlements lasted from one to three centuries. Mostly, these were entirely new settlements 
without any immediate predecessors. People lived in mudbrick houses or in wattle-and-daub 
houses erected on wooden poles. Although the structures are poor, ovens and cereals (rice) 
recovered from the sites show that the Painted Grey Ware people, who seem to be the same as 
the later Vedic people, were agricultural and led a settled life. But since they cultivated with 
the wooden ploughshare, the peasants could not produce enough to feed those who were 
engaged in other occupations. Hence, peasants could not contribute much to the rise of towns. 
Although the term nagara is used in later Vedic texts, we can trace only the faint beginnings 
of towns towards the end of the later Vedic period. Hastinapur and Kausambi (near 
Allahabad) can be regarded as primitive towns belonging to the end of the Vedic period. They 
may be called proto-urban sites. The Vedic texts also refer to seas and sea voyages. This 
suggests some kind of commerce, which may have been stimulated by the rise of new arts 
and crafts. 
On the whole, the later Vedic phase registered a great advance in the material life of the 
people. The pastoral and semi-nomadic forms of living were relegated to the background. 
Agriculture became the primary source of livelihood, and life became settled and sedentary. 
Supplemented by diverse arts and crafts, the Vedic people now settled down permanently in 
the upper Gangetic plains. The peasants living in the plains produced enough to maintain 
themselves and could also spare a marginal part of their produce for the support of princes 
and priests. 
Political Organization 
In later Vedic times, popular assemblies lost importance, and royal power increased at their 
expense. The vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold 
ground, but their character changed. They came to be dominated by princes and rich nobles. 
Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and 
brahmanas. 
The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to 
become territorial. Princes ruled over tribes, but their dominant tribes became identical with 
territories, which might be inhabited by tribes other than their own. In the beginning, each 
area was named after the tribe that settled there first, but eventually, the tribal name became 
current as the territorial name. At first, Panchala was the name of a people, and then it 
became the name of a region. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this 
period.