NCERT Textbook: Turning Tides- 11th and 12th Centuries

 Page 1


97
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Turning Tides:  
11th
 
and 12th Centuries
CHAPTER
4
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of 
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds 
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land 
which stands ??rmer than any rock in the world, with its 
undying vigour , indestructible life. Its life is of the same 
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end, 
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda
1. Why are the 11th and 12th
 
centuries seen as a period of 
transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged 
during this period? What 
were the essential features of 
their economic, military and 
administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments 
in art, architecture, literature, 
science, etc., do we come across 
during this period? 
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war  
(from Lak?hma?a Temple, Khajuraho)
Chapter 4.indd   97 Chapter 4.indd   97 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
Page 2


97
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Turning Tides:  
11th
 
and 12th Centuries
CHAPTER
4
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of 
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds 
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land 
which stands ??rmer than any rock in the world, with its 
undying vigour , indestructible life. Its life is of the same 
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end, 
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda
1. Why are the 11th and 12th
 
centuries seen as a period of 
transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged 
during this period? What 
were the essential features of 
their economic, military and 
administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments 
in art, architecture, literature, 
science, etc., do we come across 
during this period? 
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war  
(from Lak?hma?a Temple, Khajuraho)
Chapter 4.indd   97 Chapter 4.indd   97 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
98
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
In the previous chapter, we saw the Arabs’ repeated attempts 
to invade and dominate north India and how, in the end, those 
incursions had little overall impact on India. The 11th and 12th 
centuries tell a di??erent story: invasions by Turkic powers 
penetrated much deeper into north India, despite stubborn 
resistance from native kingdoms.
We begin the chapter with an invasion and end the chapter with 
another, with a very brief account of the wars and destruction 
that came in their wake. However, many Indian rulers also 
??ourished in this time period, successfully battling the invaders 
at times (when they were not battling each other), conducting 
naval expeditions, creating astonishing monuments or projecting 
India’s in??uence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and 
scientists belong to this period and their works continue to 
illuminate us even today. 
In this chapter we will only explore a few of these important 
events, ??gures and accomplishments. 
Turkic: 
Refers to 
peoples, 
languages, 
and 
cultures 
historically 
associated 
with a vast 
region 
stretching 
across 
Central 
Asia, all 
the way to 
Turkey and 
Siberia.
950 1000 1050 1100
985–1014: Reign of 
Rajaraja Chola I
1000–08: Mahmud 
of Ghazni’s 
campaigns against 
the Hindu Shahis 
1014–44: Reign of  
Rajendra Chola I 
1010–55 : Reign of 
Paramara king Bhoja
12th 
century: 
Rise of the 
Kakatiyas
1025: Rajendra 
Chola’s naval 
expedition to 
Southeast Asia
1026: Mahmud 
destroys and 
plunders the 
Somnath temple
Fig. 4.2.
Chapter 4.indd   98 Chapter 4.indd   98 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
Page 3


97
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Turning Tides:  
11th
 
and 12th Centuries
CHAPTER
4
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of 
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds 
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land 
which stands ??rmer than any rock in the world, with its 
undying vigour , indestructible life. Its life is of the same 
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end, 
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda
1. Why are the 11th and 12th
 
centuries seen as a period of 
transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged 
during this period? What 
were the essential features of 
their economic, military and 
administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments 
in art, architecture, literature, 
science, etc., do we come across 
during this period? 
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war  
(from Lak?hma?a Temple, Khajuraho)
Chapter 4.indd   97 Chapter 4.indd   97 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
98
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
In the previous chapter, we saw the Arabs’ repeated attempts 
to invade and dominate north India and how, in the end, those 
incursions had little overall impact on India. The 11th and 12th 
centuries tell a di??erent story: invasions by Turkic powers 
penetrated much deeper into north India, despite stubborn 
resistance from native kingdoms.
We begin the chapter with an invasion and end the chapter with 
another, with a very brief account of the wars and destruction 
that came in their wake. However, many Indian rulers also 
??ourished in this time period, successfully battling the invaders 
at times (when they were not battling each other), conducting 
naval expeditions, creating astonishing monuments or projecting 
India’s in??uence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and 
scientists belong to this period and their works continue to 
illuminate us even today. 
In this chapter we will only explore a few of these important 
events, ??gures and accomplishments. 
Turkic: 
Refers to 
peoples, 
languages, 
and 
cultures 
historically 
associated 
with a vast 
region 
stretching 
across 
Central 
Asia, all 
the way to 
Turkey and 
Siberia.
950 1000 1050 1100
985–1014: Reign of 
Rajaraja Chola I
1000–08: Mahmud 
of Ghazni’s 
campaigns against 
the Hindu Shahis 
1014–44: Reign of  
Rajendra Chola I 
1010–55 : Reign of 
Paramara king Bhoja
12th 
century: 
Rise of the 
Kakatiyas
1025: Rajendra 
Chola’s naval 
expedition to 
Southeast Asia
1026: Mahmud 
destroys and 
plunders the 
Somnath temple
Fig. 4.2.
Chapter 4.indd   98 Chapter 4.indd   98 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
99 99
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11
th
 and 12
th
 Centuries
  THINK ABOUT IT
A word of caution: In Grade 8 you will read a ‘Note on 
History’s Darker Periods’.  Brie??y, it explains how history has 
recorded war, conquest and destruction more than peace, good 
governance or creativity, and how, the world over, historians 
have sometimes hesitated to draw attention to such darker 
periods. Our approach is that it is better to face them and 
analyse them so as to understand what made such developments 
possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence in future. In 
addition, we should not forget that while past events cannot be 
erased or denied, it would be wrong to hold anyone responsible  
for them today.
The Ghaznavid Invasions
In the 9th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms confronted 
each other in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. 
Across those two regions and all the way to Punjab, there ruled a  
1150 1200 1250 1300
1205-06: 
Bakhtiyar 
Khilji 
defeated in 
Kamarupa
12
th
 century  
(1
st 
half): Angkor 
Wat temple 
constructed in 
Cambodia
1206: Deaths of 
Muhammad Ghuri 
and Bakhtiyar 
Khilji
1150: 
Bhaskaracharya 
composes Lilavati
1192: 2
nd 
Battle of Tarain: 
Muhammad Ghuri defeats 
P?ithviraja III
Chapter 4.indd   99 Chapter 4.indd   99 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
Page 4


97
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Turning Tides:  
11th
 
and 12th Centuries
CHAPTER
4
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of 
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds 
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land 
which stands ??rmer than any rock in the world, with its 
undying vigour , indestructible life. Its life is of the same 
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end, 
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda
1. Why are the 11th and 12th
 
centuries seen as a period of 
transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged 
during this period? What 
were the essential features of 
their economic, military and 
administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments 
in art, architecture, literature, 
science, etc., do we come across 
during this period? 
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war  
(from Lak?hma?a Temple, Khajuraho)
Chapter 4.indd   97 Chapter 4.indd   97 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
98
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
In the previous chapter, we saw the Arabs’ repeated attempts 
to invade and dominate north India and how, in the end, those 
incursions had little overall impact on India. The 11th and 12th 
centuries tell a di??erent story: invasions by Turkic powers 
penetrated much deeper into north India, despite stubborn 
resistance from native kingdoms.
We begin the chapter with an invasion and end the chapter with 
another, with a very brief account of the wars and destruction 
that came in their wake. However, many Indian rulers also 
??ourished in this time period, successfully battling the invaders 
at times (when they were not battling each other), conducting 
naval expeditions, creating astonishing monuments or projecting 
India’s in??uence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and 
scientists belong to this period and their works continue to 
illuminate us even today. 
In this chapter we will only explore a few of these important 
events, ??gures and accomplishments. 
Turkic: 
Refers to 
peoples, 
languages, 
and 
cultures 
historically 
associated 
with a vast 
region 
stretching 
across 
Central 
Asia, all 
the way to 
Turkey and 
Siberia.
950 1000 1050 1100
985–1014: Reign of 
Rajaraja Chola I
1000–08: Mahmud 
of Ghazni’s 
campaigns against 
the Hindu Shahis 
1014–44: Reign of  
Rajendra Chola I 
1010–55 : Reign of 
Paramara king Bhoja
12th 
century: 
Rise of the 
Kakatiyas
1025: Rajendra 
Chola’s naval 
expedition to 
Southeast Asia
1026: Mahmud 
destroys and 
plunders the 
Somnath temple
Fig. 4.2.
Chapter 4.indd   98 Chapter 4.indd   98 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
99 99
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11
th
 and 12
th
 Centuries
  THINK ABOUT IT
A word of caution: In Grade 8 you will read a ‘Note on 
History’s Darker Periods’.  Brie??y, it explains how history has 
recorded war, conquest and destruction more than peace, good 
governance or creativity, and how, the world over, historians 
have sometimes hesitated to draw attention to such darker 
periods. Our approach is that it is better to face them and 
analyse them so as to understand what made such developments 
possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence in future. In 
addition, we should not forget that while past events cannot be 
erased or denied, it would be wrong to hold anyone responsible  
for them today.
The Ghaznavid Invasions
In the 9th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms confronted 
each other in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. 
Across those two regions and all the way to Punjab, there ruled a  
1150 1200 1250 1300
1205-06: 
Bakhtiyar 
Khilji 
defeated in 
Kamarupa
12
th
 century  
(1
st 
half): Angkor 
Wat temple 
constructed in 
Cambodia
1206: Deaths of 
Muhammad Ghuri 
and Bakhtiyar 
Khilji
1150: 
Bhaskaracharya 
composes Lilavati
1192: 2
nd 
Battle of Tarain: 
Muhammad Ghuri defeats 
P?ithviraja III
Chapter 4.indd   99 Chapter 4.indd   99 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
100
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
powerful dynasty known as Hindu Shahis. With the help of 
several other Indian rulers, they resisted several attempted 
invasions. This resistance made a di??erence, since they 
controlled the Khyber Pass, one of the main mountain passes 
through the Hindu Kush range (see Fig. 4.3 and 4.4). In the course 
of India’s history, many invaders used this pass to enter the 
Subcontinent; for at least 2,500 years, it was also a major trade 
route, connecting the Subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond, 
and the route Buddhist scholars and monks travelled.
LET’S EXPLORE
Observe the sketch of the Khyber Pass (Fig. 4.3). What kind of 
terrain does it depict? 
 Æ What advantages would it o??er to an army trying to 
reach the Indus plains? But also, what dangers? 
 Æ Thinking of the caravans of traders that passed through 
the Khyber Pass for many centuries, let’s ask the same 
questions about the advantages as well as dangers.
Fig. 4.3. The Khyber Pass, as painted by a British military  
o??cer in about 1847.
Ultimately, however, a Turkic power — the Ghaznavids — after 
defeating a rival Muslim kingdom, overran the Shahis, ruled at 
Chapter 4.indd   100 Chapter 4.indd   100 27-11-2025   11:10:25 27-11-2025   11:10:25
Page 5


97
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Turning Tides:  
11th
 
and 12th Centuries
CHAPTER
4
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of 
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds 
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land 
which stands ??rmer than any rock in the world, with its 
undying vigour , indestructible life. Its life is of the same 
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end, 
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda
1. Why are the 11th and 12th
 
centuries seen as a period of 
transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged 
during this period? What 
were the essential features of 
their economic, military and 
administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments 
in art, architecture, literature, 
science, etc., do we come across 
during this period? 
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war  
(from Lak?hma?a Temple, Khajuraho)
Chapter 4.indd   97 Chapter 4.indd   97 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
98
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
In the previous chapter, we saw the Arabs’ repeated attempts 
to invade and dominate north India and how, in the end, those 
incursions had little overall impact on India. The 11th and 12th 
centuries tell a di??erent story: invasions by Turkic powers 
penetrated much deeper into north India, despite stubborn 
resistance from native kingdoms.
We begin the chapter with an invasion and end the chapter with 
another, with a very brief account of the wars and destruction 
that came in their wake. However, many Indian rulers also 
??ourished in this time period, successfully battling the invaders 
at times (when they were not battling each other), conducting 
naval expeditions, creating astonishing monuments or projecting 
India’s in??uence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and 
scientists belong to this period and their works continue to 
illuminate us even today. 
In this chapter we will only explore a few of these important 
events, ??gures and accomplishments. 
Turkic: 
Refers to 
peoples, 
languages, 
and 
cultures 
historically 
associated 
with a vast 
region 
stretching 
across 
Central 
Asia, all 
the way to 
Turkey and 
Siberia.
950 1000 1050 1100
985–1014: Reign of 
Rajaraja Chola I
1000–08: Mahmud 
of Ghazni’s 
campaigns against 
the Hindu Shahis 
1014–44: Reign of  
Rajendra Chola I 
1010–55 : Reign of 
Paramara king Bhoja
12th 
century: 
Rise of the 
Kakatiyas
1025: Rajendra 
Chola’s naval 
expedition to 
Southeast Asia
1026: Mahmud 
destroys and 
plunders the 
Somnath temple
Fig. 4.2.
Chapter 4.indd   98 Chapter 4.indd   98 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
99 99
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11
th
 and 12
th
 Centuries
  THINK ABOUT IT
A word of caution: In Grade 8 you will read a ‘Note on 
History’s Darker Periods’.  Brie??y, it explains how history has 
recorded war, conquest and destruction more than peace, good 
governance or creativity, and how, the world over, historians 
have sometimes hesitated to draw attention to such darker 
periods. Our approach is that it is better to face them and 
analyse them so as to understand what made such developments 
possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence in future. In 
addition, we should not forget that while past events cannot be 
erased or denied, it would be wrong to hold anyone responsible  
for them today.
The Ghaznavid Invasions
In the 9th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms confronted 
each other in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. 
Across those two regions and all the way to Punjab, there ruled a  
1150 1200 1250 1300
1205-06: 
Bakhtiyar 
Khilji 
defeated in 
Kamarupa
12
th
 century  
(1
st 
half): Angkor 
Wat temple 
constructed in 
Cambodia
1206: Deaths of 
Muhammad Ghuri 
and Bakhtiyar 
Khilji
1150: 
Bhaskaracharya 
composes Lilavati
1192: 2
nd 
Battle of Tarain: 
Muhammad Ghuri defeats 
P?ithviraja III
Chapter 4.indd   99 Chapter 4.indd   99 27-11-2025   11:10:24 27-11-2025   11:10:24
100
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2
powerful dynasty known as Hindu Shahis. With the help of 
several other Indian rulers, they resisted several attempted 
invasions. This resistance made a di??erence, since they 
controlled the Khyber Pass, one of the main mountain passes 
through the Hindu Kush range (see Fig. 4.3 and 4.4). In the course 
of India’s history, many invaders used this pass to enter the 
Subcontinent; for at least 2,500 years, it was also a major trade 
route, connecting the Subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond, 
and the route Buddhist scholars and monks travelled.
LET’S EXPLORE
Observe the sketch of the Khyber Pass (Fig. 4.3). What kind of 
terrain does it depict? 
 Æ What advantages would it o??er to an army trying to 
reach the Indus plains? But also, what dangers? 
 Æ Thinking of the caravans of traders that passed through 
the Khyber Pass for many centuries, let’s ask the same 
questions about the advantages as well as dangers.
Fig. 4.3. The Khyber Pass, as painted by a British military  
o??cer in about 1847.
Ultimately, however, a Turkic power — the Ghaznavids — after 
defeating a rival Muslim kingdom, overran the Shahis, ruled at 
Chapter 4.indd   100 Chapter 4.indd   100 27-11-2025   11:10:25 27-11-2025   11:10:25
101
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
the time by Jayapala. As their name indicates, the Ghaznavids’ 
capital was Ghazna, today’s Ghazni in Afghanistan. In the ??rst 
decade of the 11th century, their ruler Mahmud (often referred 
to as ‘Mahmud of Ghazni’) accomplished this ??nal conquest, 
??rst defeating Jayapala and, in 1008, overcoming Jayapala’s son 
Anandapala after a long battle, despite the support Anandapala 
received from several rulers from north India. The outcome of 
that battle, waged in northern Punjab, meant that Mahmud now 
had easy access to the Indus plains and beyond.
   THINK ABOUT IT
We will meet later in this chapter the Persian scholar al-Biruni, 
who accompanied Mahmud in some of his campaigns. He 
wrote in his memoirs on India, “The Hindu Shahiya dynasty 
is now extinct, and of the whole house there is no longer the 
slightest remnant in existence. We must say that, in all their 
grandeur, they never slackened in the ardent desire of doing 
that which is good and right, that they were men of noble 
sentiment and noble bearing.”
What conclusions can we draw from this remark by someone 
in Mahmud’s entourage?
 DON’T MISS OUT
Mahmud assumed the title of ‘sultan’, a word of Arabic 
origin which means ‘authority’ or ‘power’; in the Muslim 
world, it came to refer to a sovereign ruler or king. In 
Grade 8, we will come across sultans who established their 
kingdoms or ‘sultanates’ in India, the dominant one being the  
Delhi Sultanate. 
In all, Mahmud conducted 17 campaigns in India; after each 
one, he would return to Ghazni with huge amounts of booty. 
Although he met with strong resistance (from the Chandellas 
of central India, among others) and was close to defeat on a few 
occasions, his large army’s rapid marches and daring cavalry 
attacks, with archers on horseback, were ultimately decisive.
Chapter 4.indd   101 Chapter 4.indd   101 27-11-2025   11:10:26 27-11-2025   11:10:26