NCERT Textbook: The Mughals (16th to 17th Century)

 Page 1


39
THE MUGHALS 
R
uling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent  
 with such a diversity of people and cultures was an 
the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to their predecessors, 
the Mughals created an empire and accomplished what 
had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods 
of time. From the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, 
until in the seventeenth century they controlled nearly 
all of the subcontinent. They imposed structures of 
administration and ideas of governance that outlasted 
their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding 
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore. Today 
the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 
Independence Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort 
in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal emperors. 
THE MUGHALS  
(16
th
 TO 17
th
 CENTURY)
Fig. 1
The Red Fort.
Page 2


39
THE MUGHALS 
R
uling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent  
 with such a diversity of people and cultures was an 
the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to their predecessors, 
the Mughals created an empire and accomplished what 
had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods 
of time. From the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, 
until in the seventeenth century they controlled nearly 
all of the subcontinent. They imposed structures of 
administration and ideas of governance that outlasted 
their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding 
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore. Today 
the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 
Independence Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort 
in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal emperors. 
THE MUGHALS  
(16
th
 TO 17
th
 CENTURY)
Fig. 1
The Red Fort.
40
Fig. 2
Mughal army on 
campaign. 
Fig. 3
Cannons were an 
important addition 
in sixteenth-century 
warfare. Babur used 
them effectively in the 
Who were the Mughals?
The Mughals were descendants 
of two great lineages of rulers. 
From their mother’s side they were 
descendants of Genghis Khan (died 
1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled 
over parts of China and Central 
Asia. From their father’s side, they 
were the successors of Timur (died 
1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and  
modern-day Turkey. However, 
the Mughals did not like to be 
called Mughal or Mongol. This was 
because Genghis Khan’s memory 
was associated with the massacre 
of innumerable people. It was also 
linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol 
competitors. On the other hand, the 
Mughals were proud of their Timurid 
ancestry, not least of all because 
their great ancestor had captured 
They celebrated their genealogy 
pictorially, each ruler getting a 
picture made of Timur and himself. 
Mughal Military Campaigns 
he was only 12 years old. He 
was forced to leave his ancestral 
throne due to the invasion of 
another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. 
After years of wandering, he 
seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he  
 
and Agra. 
Page 3


39
THE MUGHALS 
R
uling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent  
 with such a diversity of people and cultures was an 
the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to their predecessors, 
the Mughals created an empire and accomplished what 
had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods 
of time. From the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, 
until in the seventeenth century they controlled nearly 
all of the subcontinent. They imposed structures of 
administration and ideas of governance that outlasted 
their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding 
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore. Today 
the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 
Independence Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort 
in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal emperors. 
THE MUGHALS  
(16
th
 TO 17
th
 CENTURY)
Fig. 1
The Red Fort.
40
Fig. 2
Mughal army on 
campaign. 
Fig. 3
Cannons were an 
important addition 
in sixteenth-century 
warfare. Babur used 
them effectively in the 
Who were the Mughals?
The Mughals were descendants 
of two great lineages of rulers. 
From their mother’s side they were 
descendants of Genghis Khan (died 
1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled 
over parts of China and Central 
Asia. From their father’s side, they 
were the successors of Timur (died 
1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and  
modern-day Turkey. However, 
the Mughals did not like to be 
called Mughal or Mongol. This was 
because Genghis Khan’s memory 
was associated with the massacre 
of innumerable people. It was also 
linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol 
competitors. On the other hand, the 
Mughals were proud of their Timurid 
ancestry, not least of all because 
their great ancestor had captured 
They celebrated their genealogy 
pictorially, each ruler getting a 
picture made of Timur and himself. 
Mughal Military Campaigns 
he was only 12 years old. He 
was forced to leave his ancestral 
throne due to the invasion of 
another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. 
After years of wandering, he 
seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he  
 
and Agra. 
41
THE MUGHALS 
Mughal Traditions of Succession 
The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, 
where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate. 
Instead they followed the Mughal and Timurid 
custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division of 
the inheritance amongst all the sons. Which do you 
think is a fairer division of inheritance: primogeniture 
or coparcenary?
Mughal Relations with Other Rulers
The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against 
rulers who refused to accept their authority. But as 
the Mughals became powerful many other rulers 
also joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a good 
example of this. Many of them married their daughters 
into Mughal families and received high positions. But 
many resisted as well. 
Mughal marriages 
with the Rajputs 
The mother of 
Jahangir was                   
a Kachhwaha 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Amber 
(modern- day 
Jaipur). The 
mother of Shah 
Jahan was a Rathor 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Marwar 
(Jodhpur).
Map 1
Military campaigns 
under Akbar and 
Aurangzeb.
Page 4


39
THE MUGHALS 
R
uling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent  
 with such a diversity of people and cultures was an 
the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to their predecessors, 
the Mughals created an empire and accomplished what 
had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods 
of time. From the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, 
until in the seventeenth century they controlled nearly 
all of the subcontinent. They imposed structures of 
administration and ideas of governance that outlasted 
their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding 
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore. Today 
the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 
Independence Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort 
in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal emperors. 
THE MUGHALS  
(16
th
 TO 17
th
 CENTURY)
Fig. 1
The Red Fort.
40
Fig. 2
Mughal army on 
campaign. 
Fig. 3
Cannons were an 
important addition 
in sixteenth-century 
warfare. Babur used 
them effectively in the 
Who were the Mughals?
The Mughals were descendants 
of two great lineages of rulers. 
From their mother’s side they were 
descendants of Genghis Khan (died 
1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled 
over parts of China and Central 
Asia. From their father’s side, they 
were the successors of Timur (died 
1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and  
modern-day Turkey. However, 
the Mughals did not like to be 
called Mughal or Mongol. This was 
because Genghis Khan’s memory 
was associated with the massacre 
of innumerable people. It was also 
linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol 
competitors. On the other hand, the 
Mughals were proud of their Timurid 
ancestry, not least of all because 
their great ancestor had captured 
They celebrated their genealogy 
pictorially, each ruler getting a 
picture made of Timur and himself. 
Mughal Military Campaigns 
he was only 12 years old. He 
was forced to leave his ancestral 
throne due to the invasion of 
another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. 
After years of wandering, he 
seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he  
 
and Agra. 
41
THE MUGHALS 
Mughal Traditions of Succession 
The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, 
where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate. 
Instead they followed the Mughal and Timurid 
custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division of 
the inheritance amongst all the sons. Which do you 
think is a fairer division of inheritance: primogeniture 
or coparcenary?
Mughal Relations with Other Rulers
The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against 
rulers who refused to accept their authority. But as 
the Mughals became powerful many other rulers 
also joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a good 
example of this. Many of them married their daughters 
into Mughal families and received high positions. But 
many resisted as well. 
Mughal marriages 
with the Rajputs 
The mother of 
Jahangir was                   
a Kachhwaha 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Amber 
(modern- day 
Jaipur). The 
mother of Shah 
Jahan was a Rathor 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Marwar 
(Jodhpur).
Map 1
Military campaigns 
under Akbar and 
Aurangzeb.
42
Zat ranking 
Nobles with a 
zat of 5,000 
were ranked 
higher than 
those of 1,000. 
In Akbar’s reign                
there were 29 
mansabdars 
with a rank of 
5,000 zat; by 
Aurangzeb’s 
reign the number 
of mansabdars           
had increased to 
79. Would this 
have meant more 
expenditure for          
the state? 
Mughal authority for a long time. Once defeated, 
however, they were honourably treated by the Mughals, 
given their lands  back as assignments  
. The careful balance between defeating 
but not humiliating their opponents enabled the 
 
the time. 
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
As the empire expanded to encompass different 
regions, the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of 
people. From a small nucleus of Turkish nobles 
(Turanis) they expanded to include Iranians, Indian 
Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other 
groups. Those who joined Mughal service were 
enrolled as .
The term  refers to an individual who 
holds a , meaning a position or rank. It was 
and salary were determined by a numerical value  
called . The higher the , the more prestigious 
was the noble’s position in court and the larger  
his salary.
The  military responsibilities 
required him to maintain a specified number of 
 or cavalrymen. The  brought his 
cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their 
horses branded and then received money to pay them  
as salary.
 received their salaries as revenue 
assignments called  which were somewhat like 
. But unlike , most  did not 
actually reside in or administer their . They only 
had rights to the revenue of their assignments which 
was collected for them by their servants while the  
themselves served in some other part of 
the country. 
Page 5


39
THE MUGHALS 
R
uling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent  
 with such a diversity of people and cultures was an 
the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to their predecessors, 
the Mughals created an empire and accomplished what 
had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods 
of time. From the latter half of the sixteenth century, 
they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, 
until in the seventeenth century they controlled nearly 
all of the subcontinent. They imposed structures of 
administration and ideas of governance that outlasted 
their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding 
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore. Today 
the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 
Independence Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort 
in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal emperors. 
THE MUGHALS  
(16
th
 TO 17
th
 CENTURY)
Fig. 1
The Red Fort.
40
Fig. 2
Mughal army on 
campaign. 
Fig. 3
Cannons were an 
important addition 
in sixteenth-century 
warfare. Babur used 
them effectively in the 
Who were the Mughals?
The Mughals were descendants 
of two great lineages of rulers. 
From their mother’s side they were 
descendants of Genghis Khan (died 
1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled 
over parts of China and Central 
Asia. From their father’s side, they 
were the successors of Timur (died 
1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and  
modern-day Turkey. However, 
the Mughals did not like to be 
called Mughal or Mongol. This was 
because Genghis Khan’s memory 
was associated with the massacre 
of innumerable people. It was also 
linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol 
competitors. On the other hand, the 
Mughals were proud of their Timurid 
ancestry, not least of all because 
their great ancestor had captured 
They celebrated their genealogy 
pictorially, each ruler getting a 
picture made of Timur and himself. 
Mughal Military Campaigns 
he was only 12 years old. He 
was forced to leave his ancestral 
throne due to the invasion of 
another Mongol group, the Uzbegs. 
After years of wandering, he 
seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he  
 
and Agra. 
41
THE MUGHALS 
Mughal Traditions of Succession 
The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, 
where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate. 
Instead they followed the Mughal and Timurid 
custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division of 
the inheritance amongst all the sons. Which do you 
think is a fairer division of inheritance: primogeniture 
or coparcenary?
Mughal Relations with Other Rulers
The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against 
rulers who refused to accept their authority. But as 
the Mughals became powerful many other rulers 
also joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a good 
example of this. Many of them married their daughters 
into Mughal families and received high positions. But 
many resisted as well. 
Mughal marriages 
with the Rajputs 
The mother of 
Jahangir was                   
a Kachhwaha 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Amber 
(modern- day 
Jaipur). The 
mother of Shah 
Jahan was a Rathor 
princess, daughter 
of the Rajput 
ruler of Marwar 
(Jodhpur).
Map 1
Military campaigns 
under Akbar and 
Aurangzeb.
42
Zat ranking 
Nobles with a 
zat of 5,000 
were ranked 
higher than 
those of 1,000. 
In Akbar’s reign                
there were 29 
mansabdars 
with a rank of 
5,000 zat; by 
Aurangzeb’s 
reign the number 
of mansabdars           
had increased to 
79. Would this 
have meant more 
expenditure for          
the state? 
Mughal authority for a long time. Once defeated, 
however, they were honourably treated by the Mughals, 
given their lands  back as assignments  
. The careful balance between defeating 
but not humiliating their opponents enabled the 
 
the time. 
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
As the empire expanded to encompass different 
regions, the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of 
people. From a small nucleus of Turkish nobles 
(Turanis) they expanded to include Iranians, Indian 
Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other 
groups. Those who joined Mughal service were 
enrolled as .
The term  refers to an individual who 
holds a , meaning a position or rank. It was 
and salary were determined by a numerical value  
called . The higher the , the more prestigious 
was the noble’s position in court and the larger  
his salary.
The  military responsibilities 
required him to maintain a specified number of 
 or cavalrymen. The  brought his 
cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their 
horses branded and then received money to pay them  
as salary.
 received their salaries as revenue 
assignments called  which were somewhat like 
. But unlike , most  did not 
actually reside in or administer their . They only 
had rights to the revenue of their assignments which 
was collected for them by their servants while the  
themselves served in some other part of 
the country. 
43
THE MUGHALS 
In Akbar’s reign, these 
 were carefully assessed 
so that their revenues were 
roughly equal to the salary 
of the . By 
Aurangzeb’s reign, this was 
no longer the case and the 
actual revenue collected was 
often less than the granted 
sum. There was also a huge 
increase in the number of 
 which meant a 
long wait before they received a . These and other 
factors created a shortage in the number of . 
As a result, many  tried to extract as much 
revenue as possible while they had a . Aurangzeb 
was unable to control these developments in the 
last years of his reign and the peasantry therefore  
suffered tremendously. 
Zabt and Zamindars 
The main source of income available to Mughal 
rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry. In 
most places, peasants paid taxes through the rural 
elites, that is, the headman or the local chieftain. The 
Mughals used one term – zamindars – to describe all 
intermediaries, whether they were local headmen 
of villages or powerful chieftains.
Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried 
out a careful survey of crop yields, prices 
and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, 
was divided into revenue circles with its own 
schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. 
This revenue system was known as . It 
was prevalent in those areas where Mughal 
administrators could survey the land and keep 
very careful accounts. This was not possible in  
provinces, such as Gujarat and Bengal. 
Fig. 4
A mansabdar on 
march with his 
sawars. 
Fig. 5
Details from a 
miniature from 
Shah Jahan’s reign 
depicting corruption 
in his father’s 
administration:
receiving a bribe and  
(2) a tax-collector 
punishing poor 
peasants.