Additional Topics-2 | Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Packaging of Milk and Milk Products

• Packaging involves safeguarding a product by placing it in a protective covering for transportation or storage.
• It is the art of selecting suitable containers and materials to protect, transport, identify, and market a product effectively.
• Acts as a crucial link between the manufacturer and consumer, ensuring safe delivery through various stages like production, storage, transportation, distribution, and marketing.
• For milk and milk products, high quality alone is insufficient; they must also reach consumers in a fresh, secure, and convenient state to prevent rejection due to spoilage or lack of appeal.
• Losses faced by farmers can be minimized through adequate protective packaging that can withstand climatic variations, transportation challenges, and handling issues.
• Package attractiveness plays a role in consumer acceptance, suggesting that an appealing package design can mitigate rejection risks.
• Key criteria for evaluating packaging include its ability to protect and preserve the product from packing to consumption, suitability for chosen distribution systems, consumer appeal, ease of use, storage, and disposal, as well as affordability for the average customer.
• Effective packaging is crucial for boosting exports and is now an integral part of industrial operations and modern marketing strategies.

Summary of Packaging Functions

• Containing: The package must adequately contain the product, with features to prevent leakage and spillage. It should be robust enough to withstand handling, transportation, and storage challenges, while also being compatible with the product itself.
• Protecting: Packaging serves to protect the product from contamination, loss, damage, or degradation caused by various factors like light, moisture, oxygen, spillage, and pilferage.
• Merchandising: The packaging design should facilitate easy dispensation, reclosure, disposal, and re-use of the product. Additionally, it should be compatible with existing machinery, cost-effective, printable with essential information, and visually appealing for sales purposes.

Current State of the Packaging Industry

• The packaging sector in developed nations has made significant progress, driven by consumer awareness and evolving retail formats like supermarkets. This advancement includes improvements in packaging materials, machinery, and overall packaging systems.
• In contrast, many developing countries are in the early stages of packaging development, with limited recognition of the benefits of effective packaging. Some view packaging expenses as unnecessary, although the need for quality packaging becomes evident when targeting sophisticated foreign markets.

Packaging Materials and Forms

• Materials

  • Paper and Paper-based Products:

    Various types of paper such as kraft paper, greas-proof paper, and wax-coated paper are commonly used in packaging as wrappers, cartons, boxes, bags, and cups. Paper is favored for its lightweight nature, printability, cost-effectiveness, and ease of disposal.

  • Glass:

    Glass, whether transparent or opaque, offers strength, rigidity, and chemical inertness as packaging material. However, its fragility and heavyweight are notable drawbacks.

  • Tin Plate:

    A thin sheet of mild steel coated with pure tin, tin plate provides good strength and barrier properties but is hindered by high cost and difficulty in reclosure.

  • Aluminium Foil:

    Aluminium foil, known for its barrier properties and hygiene benefits, is commonly used in food packaging. However, it has low tear strength and susceptibility to certain chemicals.

  • Timber:

    Timber, when treated appropriately, offers mechanical strength and water resistance. It is used in various forms such as boxes, tubs, casks, and barrels.

  • Plastics:

    The use of plastics in packaging has advanced significantly, offering cost-efficiency in fabrication. However, challenges include product compatibility issues and fragility at extreme temperatures.

  • Laminates:

    Laminates, such as paper-polythene or polyester-polythene, enhance film materials for improved tear resistance and barrier properties in packaging.

Forms of Packaging

• Bottles
• Cartons
• Sachet/Bag/Pouch
• Cans
• Box/Tub
• Barrel/Cask
• Cup
• Collapsible Tubes

Bottles

• Glass bottles are commonly used worldwide, but single-service disposable containers are replacing them in developed countries.
• Brown bottles are used in some regions to prevent light-induced off flavors in milk.
• Rigid plastic bottles are also used, especially in Germany and Switzerland.
• Bottles can be round or square, with square bottles being more space-efficient.
• Glass bottles are lightweight, sturdy, and reduce the payload of retail vehicles.

Cartons

• Commonly used for milk, frozen liquids, and coagulated milk products.
• Cartons are typically made of food-grade paper coated with various materials like wax, plastics, or lined with foil.
• They allow for maximum space utilization in vehicles and storage and are convenient for self-service selling.
• Cartons are prevalent in countries like the U.K., U.S.A., Germany, and Sweden.

Sachet/Bag/Pouch

• Flexible waterproof plastic bags are popular for packaging milk and liquid dairy products.
• Laminates in black or dark brown are common to exclude ultraviolet light.
• Ultraviolet light may be used to sterilize the film.
• Bags are heat-sealed and cut in a specific sequence for packaging.

Cans

• Commonly used for solid, semi-solid, and powdered products.
• Traditionally made of tin-plated steel, sometimes lacquered to prevent corrosion.
• Aluminum cans have been introduced as well, especially for gas packing.

Box/Tub

• Wooden or paperboard boxes are used for packing butter and butter oil.
• Paperboard boxes are typically used as over-wraps.

Barrel/Cask

• Commonly made of wood and coated with wax, used for bulk packing of various dairy products.

Cup

• Made of paper with wax or plastic coating, commonly used for frozen and coagulated products.

Collapsible Tubes

• Generally made of aluminum and lacquered inside, used for dispensing semi-fluid products.

Summary: Packaging Machinery and Standardization

Packaging Machinery

• In developed countries, a wide range of packaging machinery is available, covering the production of basic packaging materials, converting them into final packages, filling, sealing, printing, testing, and storage.
• Conversely, developing nations rely on imported machinery for their packaging needs.

Standardization in Packaging

• Adopting standard packaging materials and techniques is crucial for enhancing productivity and facilitating national and international trade.
• The Indian Standards Institution is actively involved in establishing standards for packaging materials and filled packages within the country.
• Given the rapid industrial growth and advancements in transportation, periodic reviews of packaging standards are essential to achieve cost-effective packaging, especially in international trade.

Package Disposal

• Following product usage, empty packages must be appropriately disposed of, contributing significantly to the solid waste generated by communities, particularly in urban areas.
• Municipal/Public Health Authorities should prioritize the collection and proper disposal of these empty packages.
• Common disposal methods include landfill, incineration, and bio-deterioration, requiring caution to prevent air and land pollution.

Problems in the Use of Buffalo Milk During Manufacture and Storage of Various Products

• Buffalo milk constitutes over 50% of total milk production in India and differs from cow milk due to its higher fat and total solids content.
• Physico-chemical differences between cow and buffalo milks:
• Compositional variations: Buffalo milk contains higher levels of milk solids like fat, protein, lactose, minerals, SNF, and TS compared to cow milk.
• Physico-chemical distinctions: Buffalo milk typically has a higher pH, acidity, buffer value, density, viscosity, and fat-globule size than cow milk.
• Casein disparities: Buffalo milk has a higher proportion of micellar casein and larger particle size compared to cow milk, resulting in differences in opacity and turbidity.
• Whey protein variances: Buffalo milk shows variations in whey proteins compared to cow milk.
• Milk fat distinctions: Buffalo milk fat exhibits variations in Reichert value, saponification value, Kirschner value, melting point, and fatty acid composition compared to cow milk fat.
• Mineral salt differences: Buffalo milk contains more calcium and phosphorus but fewer anions, resulting in a different salt balance ratio and low heat stability.

Problems in Product Manufacture and Storage

• Cheese:
• Buffalo milk's unique composition affects cheese manufacture, leading to challenges like slow ripening, excessive syneresis, and hard texture.
• Modified techniques include adjusting casein/fat ratio, using less rennet, adding more starter culture, and altering temperature and cooking periods.
• Condensed Milks:
• Buffalo milk's composition influences the production and storage of condensed and evaporated milks, causing issues like gel formation, age thickening, and flavor changes.
• Challenges include sandiness defect, browning, and discolouration during storage.

By understanding these differences and challenges, manufacturers can adapt techniques to optimize the production and storage of buffalo milk products, ensuring quality and consistency.

Techniques for Improving Buffalo Milk Products

• Adjustment of Fat: SNF Ratio
• Addition of Stabilizers
• Pre-heating of Milk
• Addition of Sugar
• Cooling and Crystallization
• Storage Conditions
• Regular Inversion of Canned Products

Milk Powder (Whole and Skim)

• Chief Differences Between Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk
• Major Problems in Manufacture and Storage
• Modification of Techniques

Infant Food

• Similarities with Milk Powder Manufacturing
• Techniques for Overcoming Problems

Butter

• Differences in Fat Composition Between Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk
• Impact on Butter-making Process

Ghee

• Role of Fatty Acid Composition in Buffalo Ghee
• Differences in Shelf-life Compared to Cow Ghee

Chhana

• Physico-chemical Differences Between Buffalo Chhana and Cow Chhana
• Techniques for Improving Buffalo Chhana Quality

Khoa

• Comparison of Buffalo Milk Khoa with Cow Milk Khoa
• Quality of Sweets Produced

Conclusion

• Improving Heat Stability of Buffalo Milk
• Partial Replacement of Calcium with Sodium and Potassium
• Ion-exchange Treatment for Improved Stability

Summary:

• The Rheology of Dairy Products encompasses various physical properties like hardness, plasticity, viscosity, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, spreadability, and standing-up qualities, all of which are interconnected.
• Properties such as standing-up quality are crucial for butter, which needs to maintain its shape on the counter, while spreadability is vital for everyday use.
• In the grading of dairy products, body and texture play significant roles, although their exact definitions are still evolving.

Rheology of Butter:

• Butter's body and texture are affected by milk fat composition and cream processing conditions before churning.
• Factors like fat composition, fat globule characteristics, churning method, and storage influence butter's texture and spreadability.
• Penetrability testing has been explored, but objective grading based on structural properties remains a challenge.

Rheology of Cheese:

• Tests like the plastic bowl and torsiometer for firmness measurement have been developed for cheese evaluation.
• Tools such as curd pitching tester and hardness tester aid in assessing curd conditions and firmness during cheese making.

Rheology of Other Dairy Products:

• Viscosity measurements are crucial for assessing the consistency of products like condensed and evaporated milk to meet consumer expectations.
• Studies on products like khoa and chhana are ongoing to enhance understanding and quality assessment.
• International Indian Standards for Dairy Products
  • Revision of standards entrusted to Codex Committee and Milk and Milk Products (CCMMP) since 1993.
  • 11 standards revised and adopted by the CAG.
  • Interventions by Indian delegation led to alterations in some standards.
  • Changes include the definition of milk, inclusion of Ghee, incorporation of BHA as an antioxidant, and expanding raw material options.
  • Efforts by India at IDF and CCMMP allowed for the suitability of buffalo milk in cheese making.
• Discrepancies in Standards
  • Lead safety levels differ: India considers 0.2 ppm safe, while international standards set it at 0.02 ppm.
  • Lead levels in butter caused disagreement: Indian delegation opposed the 0.05 mg/kg limit adopted by the CAC.
  • Differences in pesticide residue standards between Codex and PFA standards.
  • Guidelines for lactoperoxidase system use vary, with India not permitting it.
  • Decolorized buffalo milk allowed in some nations but not in India.

Norms for Processing Units Needed to Comply Before Exporting Milk Products

• Statutory Restrictions:
  • Compliance with any regulations set by State/Central Government regarding commercial or environmental measures is mandatory.
• Animal Health:
  • Milk products must originate from healthy dairy animals without visible signs of infectious diseases transmittable to humans through milk.
  • Animals treated with drugs transferable to milk must not be brought to the collection center without proper inspection of drug retention periods.
• Food Additives:
  • Milk products must only contain permitted food additives and processing aids suitable for human consumption.
• Plant Approval:
  • Milk products should be processed and prepared in an authorized facility.
• Hygiene Standards:
  • Processing and manufacturing should occur under sanitary conditions.
  • Packing and storing requirements:
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    • Packing:
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      • Wrapping and packing should be done in hygienic rooms.
      • Bottling, filling, sealing, and packaging should be automated.
      • Reusable packaging material may be used after thorough cleaning for certain containers.
    • Storing:
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      • Products must be stored at temperatures specified by manufacturers.
      • Processors should specify the consumption and storage period of milk products.
      • Regular checks and tests must be recorded and kept for two years.
      • Residues of harmful substances in milk should not exceed safe levels to avoid health hazards.
      • Testing for residues should adhere to accepted methods nationally and internationally.
• Vital Activities of Export Inspection Council (EIC) to Support Export of Food Products:
  • The Export Inspection Council (EIC) plays a crucial role in facilitating exports by ensuring that products meet the quality and safety standards required by importing nations.
  • To achieve this, the EIC focuses on developing reliable systems for inspection and certification aligned with international standards such as ISO 17020 and 17025.
  • Harmonizing inspection, certification, and testing procedures with international standards not only enhances credibility but also aids in gaining recognition from importing countries through equivalence agreements.
  • Equivalence agreements are pivotal in certifying various products for export, particularly in the food sector, and are endorsed by international bodies like the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
  • By establishing Equivalence Agreements with major trading partners, the EIC aims to streamline trade processes, reduce redundant testing, prevent rejections, and ensure a level of health protection equivalent to that of the importing country.
• Recognition and Agreements:
  • The EIC has been designated as a Competent Authority by the European Commission for marine products and Basmati rice, with ongoing efforts to gain recognition for egg and milk products.
  • Equivalence Agreements have been initiated with countries such as Australia (AQis) and the USA (USFDA), with dialogues in progress with Canada, Argentina, Italy, Sri Lanka, among others.
  • Efforts have been made to forward relevant documentation to the Indian embassy at Brussels to seek necessary approvals from the European Commission for initiating exports to European nations.
• Enhancement of Laboratories and Infrastructure:
  • The EIC prioritizes the modernization and upgrading of its laboratories in Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and Kochi, along with field labs attached to sub-offices for testing in the marine sector.
  • Laboratories are being enhanced to meet international accreditation requirements, emphasizing automation, computerization, and networking to enable online application processing for certification.
• Capacity Building and Training Initiatives:
  • Emphasis is placed on training and developing the skills of EIC personnel to ensure effective implementation of international quality and safety standards.
  • A Human Resource and Quality Development center has been established to intensify training activities, with a pool of trainers created through projects such as the FAO's 'Manpower Development in Food Safety and Quality'.
  • Reorientation training programs are conducted to update officers on the latest developments in certification standards and food safety systems.
• Participation in International Forums:
  • The EIC actively participates in international Codex meetings to advocate for Indian interests and ensure alignment with global standards, keeping the government and industry informed about the latest developments in quality and safety requirements.

Summary: HACCP Based Quality Assurance System

• The Need for HACCP System in the Dairy Sector

  The Indian dairy sector recognizes the importance of developing an HACCP system and implementing an HACCP Plan.

• Challenges in Dairy Production

  Dairy production involves processing raw milk that may contain chemical, physical, and microbiological hazards.

• Implementation Challenges at Farm Level

  It is impractical to apply the HACCP program at the farm level due to hazards being controlled later in the food chain.

• Management at Dairy Farm Level

  Dairy farms need to be managed based on prerequisite programs, ensuring the quality and safety of raw milk.

• Plant-Level HACCP Program

  If hazards at the farm level are not adequately controlled, a HACCP program at the plant level becomes necessary.

• Regulation and Training

  Development of a core training module is essential for self-regulation, promoting a uniform approach in HACCP application.

• Training Focus

  Training should emphasize the skills and methods required for implementing Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, including the HACCP system.

Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954) and Rules

• The food laws in India are highly regulated by multiple government agencies, leading to the Central and State governments being seen as responsible for ensuring food quality and safety.
• Manufacturers are primarily responsible for producing safe and quality food to gain consumers' trust, despite the flawed regulatory system.
• Self-regulation, as seen in advanced dairying countries, where associations monitor food production stages, is proven to be an effective quality assurance system.
• India should move towards self-regulation under the Indian Dairy Association to become a major player in the global dairy market, aligning with international standards like Codex.
• Adopting a preventive approach like HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) is crucial, emphasizing control systems throughout the product chain to ensure safety proactively.
• Inspectors' roles should shift from policing to advisory, enabling industries to seek guidance from regulatory bodies for effective control system implementation.
• Encouraging more dairy companies to adopt systems like HACCP is essential for ensuring food safety and quality across the industry.

Milk: A Nutritious and Protective Food

• Milk is a versatile food that serves as a complete diet for infants, a valuable supplement for individuals of all ages, and a crucial protective element for the sick and invalids.
• Milk proteins are highly nutritious, offering a quality protein source that complements the deficiencies in plant-based proteins when consumed together.
• Proteins and peptides found in milk possess therapeutic and preventive properties, aiding in the defense against gastrointestinal issues, hypertension, and enteric infections.
• Rich in essential vitamins, milk, particularly abundant in vitamin A, riboflavin, and vitamin B12, provides a comprehensive vitamin profile crucial for overall health.
• Calcium, a vital mineral, is most abundantly found in milk in a highly absorbable form, making it an exceptional source for maintaining bone health.
• In addition to its nutritional components, milk contains various non-nutritive compounds like conjugated linoleic acid, sphingomyelins, and beta-carotenes, which offer protective effects against diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and diabetes.
• Mother's milk is particularly rich in antimicrobial substances like immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, and lysozyme, providing infants with protection against infections.
• Special factors present in milk aid in lowering serum cholesterol levels, contributing to heart health.
• Lactic acid, a byproduct of milk sugar lactose, plays a role in inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria in the intestine, promoting gut health.

XI. Microwave Processing in Dairy Industry

• The adoption of microwave ovens in the food industry, driven by consumer demand for convenience and time-saving, has revolutionized food processing.
• Quick heating capabilities of microwave ovens have led to their widespread use, especially in Western households.
• Advancements in microwave heating technology have enabled rapid and cost-effective processing of various food products with high nutritional and sensory qualities.

Microwave Energy Applications:

• Cooking: Microwave energy is utilized for cooking various food items.
• Drying: It is used in the drying process of food products.
• Tempering/Baking: Microwave technology aids in tempering and baking food items.
• Pasteurization and Sterilization: Microwave energy is employed for pasteurizing and sterilizing food products.

Tempering/Thawing:

• Microwave technology is significant for thawing frozen foods, offering advantages over traditional methods.
• An example is Anchor Foods Ltd in the UK, using microwave tempering to thaw butter quickly and efficiently.

Pasteurization/Sterilization:

• Microwave pasteurization results in higher quality milk compared to conventional methods due to uniform heating and reduced thermal denaturation.

Sterilization after Packing:

• Microwaves can penetrate non-metallic packaging, enabling heat treatment of food products post-packaging.
• Reports suggest extended shelf life of yogurt using this method.

Summary of Cooking in the Dairy Industry Using Microwaves

• Introduction:
  • While cooking or baking is not a common practice in the dairy industry, microwave technology has found applications in cheese making, particularly in the preparation of Hallum cheese both before and after pressing.
• Properties of Microwaved Cheese:
  • Cheese cooked using microwaves exhibits similar properties to conventionally cooked cheese, indicating that the microwave method is effective in achieving desired outcomes.
• Advantages of Microwave Usage:
  • Easy startup and shutdown processes, time savings, and the absence of hot contact surfaces are key advantages of employing microwaves in the dairy industry.
• Heat Treatment Benefits:
  • Post-packing heat treatment using microwaves presents a favorable alternative to aseptic packing through conventional methods, especially when materials like plastics, glass, ceramics, or porcelain are utilized as containers.