Early Empires Chapter Notes | Footprints Class 6: Book Solutions, Notes & Worksheets PDF Download

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

At first, the rulers of janapadas were chosen by the people. But around 600 BCE, things started to change. Some individuals became rulers by showing their military skills, promising to protect their subjects, and performing important rituals, such as the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

The term "janapadas" means the place where people settled and lived. As time passed, these janapadas grew bigger and more powerful and transformed into larger political entities known as "mahajanapadas" or great kingdoms. Around 500 BCE, there were 16 important mahajanapadas in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Types of Government

Some of these mahajanapadas were ruled by individual kings, while others were republics, meaning they had a council to make decisions. For example, the Republic of Vajji was one of the republics, where a group of people, particularly those from powerful families, made decisions together.

Monarchies

The monarchical mahajanapadas were ruled by individual kings, and kingship was hereditary, usually passing to the eldest son. These kings became very powerful, making monarchy the main form of government.

• The king symbolized the state and had absolute power, being seen as the protector of society and dharma.
• The king was assisted by officials or ministers called amatyas in governing, by the senapati in wars, and by the purohita in religious and social duties.
• Powerful kings needed permanent armies that were always ready to conquer other lands and maintain order in the kingdom.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries by the king throughout the year, with payments made in punch-marked coins rather than the paper money we use today.
• The money for these salaries came from taxes collected by the king.
• The income from taxes was also used to maintain the army, build roads, and fund other welfare activities.

Republics(Ganasanghas)

• Some of the mahajanapadas were kingdoms ruled by a king, while others were known as ganas, ganarajyas, or ganasanghas, which are often translated as republics.
• In these republics, a group of people, usually male heads of particular families, made all decisions together in an assembly called the gana.
• The kshatriya families, who owned most of the land in the ganasanghas, were the ones who exercised political power.
• Therefore, a republican mahajanapada was ruled by a group of people rather than by a single individual.
• Both kingdoms and ganasanghas had large capital cities, some of which were fortified with massive brick walls to protect against raids and invasions.

Agriculture

Farming was the primary occupation for people during this time. Two important developments helped agriculture thrive. First, they started using iron tools like ploughshares, which made it easier to cultivate the land. Second, they learned the technique of paddy transplantation, which involved growing saplings and planting them in prepared fields instead of scattering seeds on the ground.

Taxation

Kings needed resources to run their kingdoms, so they collected taxes. Most people were farmers, so taxes were often collected on crops. The king's share, known as "shatbhaga," was typically one-sixth of the produce. Sometimes, tax could also be collected in the form of labor services.

Trade and Urbanization

With increased agricultural production, there was surplus. This surplus was collected as taxes, but some of it was traded in the form of goods. Craftsmen produced various items, and merchants carried them over long distances by cart or by sailing down the rivers. Some cities grew in size and number, often located along trade routes.

Society

The society was organized based on the varna system, which classified people into four groups: brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras. This system became hereditary, meaning you were born into a particular group. However, not everyone accepted this system, and some people objected to it.

Religion

Between 600 BCE and 300 BCE, there was a period of religious change and turmoil. Brahmanas began to dominate religious practices, emphasizing complex rituals, sacrifices, and the vama system. People started to seek different religious options, leading to the popularity of two new religions, Jainism and Buddhism.

Case Study: Magadha and Vajji

Magadha emerged as the most important mahajanapada, corresponding to present-day Bihar, and enjoyed many natural advantages. Located at the confluence of the rivers Ganga and Son, it had ample water for drinking, cultivation, and transportation.

• The Gangetic Plain, one of the most fertile areas in the world, supported the cultivation of a variety of crops due to its alluvial soil.
• Magadha had large deposits of iron ore used for making agricultural implements and weapons of war.
• The kingdom was also thickly forested, providing wood and elephants, which were invaluable during Magadha's expansion.
• Strong rulers such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of the Haryanka Dynasty played a significant role in Magadha's rise.
• Magadha's power continued to expand under the Shaishunaga and Nanda families.
• When Alexander the Great wanted to advance east of the Indus River, people warned him about the massive army of the Nandas, which included many elephants, chariots, and foot soldiers.
• Although the Nandas (c. 361–321 BCE) controlled the entire Gangetic Plain from their capital in Pataliputra, they were cruel and tyrannical, making them unpopular.
• This unpopularity made it easier for Chandragupta Maurya to overthrow the Nandas and establish the Mauryan dynasty.

Bimbisara(544–493 BCE)

• Bimbisara (544–493 BCE) was the first great ruler of Magadha and belonged to the Haryanka family. His capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha.
• Bimbisara strengthened Magadha through strategic marriages with princesses of other kingdoms, conquering hostile kingdoms, encouraging trade, improving transport, and using iron for weapons.
• His efforts set the stage for the rise and expansion of Magadha.

Ajatashatru(493–461 BCE)

• Ajatashatru (493–461 BCE), Bimbisara's son, became king in 493 BCE after killing his own father, marking the first recorded case of patricide in ancient India.
• Ambitious and intent on expanding Magadha, Ajatashatru attacked the king of Kosala and the Lichchhavi ganasangha, despite their familial connections.
• The capital of Magadha was Rajagriha, now known as Rajgir, and later, Ajatashatru's successors built a new capital at Pataliputra, designed as a water-fort or jaladurga.

The Vajji Kingdom

The Republic of Vajji or Vrijji state had no monarch but was ruled by an assembly called the gana or sangha. The Vajjians included eight confederated clans, with the Lichchhavis, the Videhas, the Jnatrikas, and the Vajis being the most important.

• The Lichchhavis ruled over the area north of the river Ganga in Bihar.
• Vaishali, now modern Basarh in the Vaishali district of North Bihar, was the capital of the Lichchhavis and the political headquarters of the powerful Vajji confederacy.
• The Lichchhavis were followers of the Buddha.
• The gana or assembly of the Lichchhavis had many members, all of whom were called rajas.
• This assembly met several times a year to make important decisions after long and thorough discussions by majority opinion.
• For administrative purposes, there was a smaller body called the council of ministers, which included members such as the raja, uparaja, senapati, and bhandarika.
• However, women, slaves (dasas), and landless agricultural laborers (karmakaras) were excluded from the Lichchhavi assembly.
• The Lichchhavis were known to be brave and warlike.
• Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha, aimed to defeat the Lichchhavis and weaken them through secret plans. It took him 16 years of fighting to subdue them.

What Was Happening Elsewhere

The Dark Ages in Greece

• In ancient Greece, the period from 1200 to 800 BCE is often referred to as the Dark Ages.
• This period was marked by political instability, turmoil, and insecurity, along with the decline of trade and the disappearance of writing.
• Despite these challenges, this era produced two of the greatest Greek writers.
• Homer, a blind poet from the island of Chios, composed two great epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey.
• Hesiod, who lived slightly later than Homer, was a prosperous farmer and composed Works and Days, the first account of the life of an ordinary farmer.
• Both Homer’s and Hesiod’s compositions were initially oral compositions and were written down later.