Class 8 History Chapter 2 Notes - From Trade to Territory

Aurangzeb, the final powerful Mughal ruler, controlled a vast part of present-day India. Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Mughal governors and prominent zamindars started asserting power, leading to the rise of regional kingdoms. The emergence of strong regional kingdoms rendered Delhi ineffective as a central authority. By the latter half of the eighteenth century, the British began rising as a significant political force in India. Initially a small trading company, the British were initially hesitant to expand their territories. Despite their reluctance, the British eventually became rulers of a vast empire.

East India Company Comes East

• East India Company was established in 1600 after acquiring a charter from Queen Elizabeth I of England.
• Granted exclusive trading rights in the East, eliminating competition from other English trading groups.
• Companies could seek new lands for goods at low prices, selling them in Europe at higher prices.
• Portuguese and Dutch were already present in Eastern markets before the English ships arrived.
• Intense competition for goods like cotton, silk, pepper, cloves, cardamom, and cinnamon.
• Rivalry among European companies drove up prices, leading to conflicts and battles.
• Companies secured markets through battles, blockades, and fortifications.
• Trade intertwined with politics, resulting in conflicts with local rulers.

East India Company Begins Trade in Bengal

• East India Company initiated trade in Bengal in 1651 at the banks of the river Hugli.
• The first English factory established served as the Company's operational base, with warehouses for goods and offices for officials.
• Trade expansion led to the Company urging merchants to settle nearby, eventually building a fort around the area by 1696.
• Through persuasion and bribery, the Company gained zamindari rights over three villages, including Kalikata (Calcutta/Kolkata).
• The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb granted a farman allowing duty-free trade to the Company.
• The Company sought more privileges, exploiting existing rights, leading to revenue loss in Bengal.
• Despite the Farman granting duty-free trade exclusively to the Company, its officials avoided paying duties, causing financial strain in Bengal.
• This led to the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, being compelled to react.

East India Company begins trade in Bengal

How Trade Led to Battles

• Conflict escalation between the Company and Bengal nawabs in the early 18th century.
• The succession of strong rulers like Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Siraj-ud-Daulah.
• Refusal of concessions, imposition of large tributes, denial of coin minting rights, and fortification restrictions by the nawabs.
• Accusations against the Company of revenue deprivation and disrespect towards the nawab's authority.
• The company's claims of unjust demands hindered trade and the necessity to expand settlements for trade growth.
• Conflict escalation led to the Battle of Plassey.

The Battle of Plassey

• The Battle of Plassey occurred after Sirajuddaulah became Nawab of Bengal in 1756.
• The East India Company sought a puppet ruler for trade concessions but faced resistance from Sirajuddaulah.
• Sirajuddaulah captured Calcutta, leading to a conflict with the East India Company.
• Robert Clive led the Company's forces to victory at Plassey in 1757 with the support of Mir Jafar.
• After Plassey, Mir Jafar became Nawab, but conflicts with the Company led to changes in leadership.
• The Company eventually became the Diwan of Bengal in 1765, gaining control over revenue resources.
• This appointment allowed the Company to use Indian revenues to finance its operations and trade.

Company Officials Become "nabobs"

• Company officials transformed into "nabobs" post acquiring power and authority from the Nawabs.
• After the Battle of Plassey, Bengal nawabs were compelled to offer land and large sums of money to Company officials.
• Robert Clive, who arrived in India at 18, accumulated a substantial fortune, facing scrutiny for corruption allegations.
• Despite Clive's success, not all Company officials prospered financially; some perished due to disease and war.
• Many officials aspired to earn in India, return to Britain, and live comfortably, while those who returned wealthy flaunted their riches and were mockingly labeled as "nabobs" in British society.

Company Rule Expands

• Rare direct military attacks; preferred political, economic, and diplomatic methods.
• After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in states.
• Residents interfered in state affairs, deciding successions and appointments.
• States were coerced into "subsidiary alliances" where rulers couldn't maintain independent armies.
• Rulers had to pay for the Company's protection; and loss of territory for non-payment.
• Example: Nawab of Awadh lost territory in 1801 for failing to pay for forces.
• Hyderabad faced similar territorial losses under Richard Wellesley's rule (1798-1805).

Tipu Sultan - The "Tiger of Mysore"

• Tipu Sultan, known as the "Tiger of Mysore," led Mysore during a period of confrontation with the British East India Company.
• Mysore, under leaders like Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, controlled trade on the Malabar coast, disrupting Company interests by halting exports and restricting local trade.
• Tipu Sultan strengthened Mysore by forming alliances with the French and modernizing his army.
• The British viewed Haidar and Tipu as ambitious threats, leading to four wars with Mysore, culminating in Tipu's death in the Battle of Seringapatam in 1799.
• After Tipu's death, Mysore was placed under the Wodeyar dynasty, and a subsidiary alliance was enforced by the British.

War with the Marathas

• The company's aim was to weaken and eliminate Maratha's influence post-18th century.
• Marathas' ambition to govern from Delhi shattered after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Maratha territories are divided amongst various chiefs like Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad, and Bhonsle.
• Peshwa led the confederacy of Maratha chiefs, controlling military and administrative affairs from Pune.
• Key Maratha figures Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were notable in the late 18th century.
• A series of conflicts subdued Marathas with the Treaty of Saibai in 1782 and the subsequent Anglo-Maratha Wars.
• British gains post-Second Anglo-Maratha War included the Orissa, Agra, and Delhi territories.
• The third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) marked the decline of Maratha power with the removal of the Peshwa.
• The company secured control over regions south of the Vindhyas post-Third Anglo-Maratha War.

The Claim to Paramountcy

• The East India Company asserted "paramountcy," claiming supremacy over Indian states, justifying annexations under Lord Hastings in the early 19th century.
• Resistance to British annexations occurred, such as Rani Channamma's anti-British movement in Kitoor and Rayanna's subsequent resistance leading to his hanging in 1830.
• In the late 1830s, the East India Company's concerns about Russian expansion led to conflicts in Afghanistan and the eventual annexation of Punjab in 1849 after wars with the Sikh kingdom.

The Doctrine of Lapse

• The Doctrine of Lapse was implemented during Lord Dalhousie's term as Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
• Under this policy, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would become part of the Company territory.
• Several kingdoms were annexed using this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi (1854).
• In 1856, Awadh was also taken over by the Company, citing the reason of freeing the people from the misgovernment of the Nawab.
• The people of Awadh, angered by the Nawab's deposition, joined the 1857 revolt.

Setting up a New Administration

• Warren Hastings, Governor-General from 1773 to 1785, played a crucial role in expanding Company power across Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, which were termed Presidencies.
• Each Presidency, namely Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, was governed by a Governor, with the Governor-General serving as the supreme administrative authority.
• Administrative reforms were introduced by Warren Hastings, particularly in the justice system, establishing criminal and civil courts in each district.
• European district collectors oversaw civil courts, while criminal courts operated under the guidance of local authorities but with European supervision.
• Uniformity in legal interpretations was sought by compiling digests of Hindu and Muslim laws in English for the benefit of European judges.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 led to the establishment of a new Supreme Court and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat as a court of appeal in Calcutta.
• The key figure in Indian districts was the Collector, responsible for revenue collection, tax administration, and maintaining law and order with the assistance of various officials.
• The Collector's office, known as the Collectorate, became a central hub of power and influence, gradually superseding previous local authorities.

The Company Army

• The Mughal army under colonial rule in India relied heavily on its military strength, mainly composed of cavalry and infantry.
• The cavalry was dominant, while infantry consisted of armed peasants and soldiers trained in archery and swordsmanship.
• In the eighteenth century, Mughal successor states like Awadh and Benaras started recruiting peasants as professional soldiers, a practice adopted by the East India Company for its sepoy army.
• With changing warfare technology from the 1820s, the importance of infantry grew in the Company's army due to the use of muskets in conflicts.
• A uniform military culture developed in the early nineteenth century with soldiers undergoing European-style training and discipline, leading to conflicts with caste and community identities.
• The Revolt of 1857, known as the Sepoy Mutiny, sheds light on the sepoys' reactions to the changes in their lives and identities as professional soldiers.

Conclusion

• The East India Company evolved from a trading entity to a territorial dominator due to the integration of steam technology in the early 19th century.
• Previously, sea voyages to India lasted from six to eight months, but steamships reduced this duration to three weeks, facilitating more British migration to India.
• By 1857, the East India Company directly governed around 63% of the land and 78% of the populace in the Indian subcontinent, extending its control extensively.