Egyptian Civilization | General Knowledge Encyclopedia - Class 8 PDF Download

Introduction

• Around 5,000 years ago, the civilization of ancient Egypt originated in the Nile River valley located in northeastern Africa. It stood as one of the earliest and most renowned civilizations in human history. The ancient Egyptians constructed massive pyramids, temples, palaces, and tombs, showcasing their impressive architectural achievements. 
• Their artistic endeavors, including paintings and carvings, are regarded as some of the most magnificent ever crafted. Moreover, they depicted scenes of daily life, work, and leisure with intricate details, providing insights into their way of living.
• The dry climate of Egypt played a crucial role in preserving numerous artifacts created by the ancient Egyptians. The remains of this civilization began to be uncovered by archaeologists during the late 1700s. By studying these discoveries, historians have gained substantial knowledge about the ancient Egyptian civilization and its way of life.

Life in Ancient Egypt

• Remnants from ancient Egypt, encompassing various items like clothing, leather, wood, and food, offer valuable insights into the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians. Tombs have been especially instrumental in shedding light on their way of life, as they often feature intricate paintings portraying scenes from everyday activities. The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife, so they carefully placed all that they might need in their tombs.
• For instance, the tomb of Queen Herneith contained the burial of her loyal dog, and in another nobleman's tomb, an entire meal was discovered, comprising barley porridge, quail, kidneys, pigeon stew, fish, bread, and cakes. Initially, models of various necessities such as houses, granaries, boats, cattle, and servants were placed in tombs to serve the deceased in the afterlife. Later, these scenes were depicted on the tomb walls for the same purpose. Wealthy tombs held jewelry and other precious items.
• The ancient Egyptians preserved the dead as mummies, a process involving the removal of internal organs and the use of substances like salt or other chemicals to preserve the body. In addition to human mummies, countless mummies of sacred animals like cats, ibises, and crocodiles have been unearthed. Notable individuals were often placed in elaborate coffins known as sarcophagi, some of which even bore a likeness of the deceased. For instance, the famous pharaoh Tutankhamen had a solid gold coffin.

Medicine

• The ancient Egyptians possessed extensive knowledge of the human body, which led to the development of proficient doctors. 
• Their thorough study of anatomy and medicine is evident in some of the earliest medical and surgical documents discovered in Egypt. 
• Among these records is the Ebers Papyrus, dating back to around 1550 BCE, containing a compilation of 700 remedies for various common illnesses and ailments.

Writing

• The ancient Egyptians achieved a remarkable feat with the creation of a written language, starting with a pictorial form known as hieroglyphics. These hieroglyphics were representations of sounds in words and were intricately cut or painted on the walls of tombs and temples, featuring vibrant colors like red, yellow, green, black, and blue. The usage of hieroglyphics dates back to around 3100 BCE.
• Despite the development of a cursive writing style around 2900 BCE, hieroglyphics continued to be in use. The cursive script was written using ink and a pen made from reeds, primarily on papyrus, a form of paper produced from papyrus plants. Another script known as demotic emerged around 700 BCE and was used for everyday writing, while the earlier hieratic script was mostly reserved for sacred texts.
• The key breakthrough in deciphering Egyptian writing came with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in Egypt in 1799. Dating back to around 200 BCE, this stone tablet contained text in Greek along with translations in hieroglyphics and demotic script. By comparing the Egyptian text with the Greek translation, a scholar proficient in Greek language managed to unlock the meanings of the hieroglyphics and the demotic words.

Everyday Life

• Villages and towns in ancient Egypt were strategically located near the Nile River because it served as the main trade route and the sole water source. The houses in these settlements were constructed using mud bricks. To combat the harsh sunlight and heat, the windows were small and situated high, covered with loosely woven matting. The walls were adorned with vibrant frescoes, and the floors were covered with straw matting and rugs.
• Wall paintings offer valuable insights into the daily lives of common people, depicting scenes of child-rearing, hunting, farming, animal husbandry, and various everyday tasks. The paintings also reveal details about clothing, jewelry, and hairstyles across all social classes. Egyptians had a penchant for perfumes and cosmetics, with both men and women applying green eyeshadow and black kohl to outline their eyes. Women also used color on their lips and nails. Cosmetics containers and grinding tools were placed in tombs to be used in the afterlife.
• Due to the hot climate, Egyptian clothing was typically simple. Young children, servants, and laborers often wore minimal clothing. The most commonly used fabric was white linen, while wool was used for cloaks when additional warmth was required. Early garments were draped and tied around the body or secured with pins and belts. Men typically wore linen skirts and sometimes vests, while women donned straight, ankle-length dresses with shoulder straps. Necklaces and wide collars adorned with gemstones were common accessories. Over time, clothing became more intricate and elaborate. Wigs were popular, and false beards made of metal were worn by rulers, even female rulers. Men often wore beards as well.

Religion

• The ancient Egyptians held a polytheistic belief system and venerated numerous deities. Among these, the principal god associated with the sun was Re, also known as Ra. Each city in Egypt had its own set of gods that held significance for its inhabitants. 
• As the city of Thebes rose in prominence, its patron god Amon also gained greater importance. Over time, the Egyptians merged Amon with Re, giving rise to the deity Amon-Re, who was revered as the supreme ruler among the gods.
• In addition to their worship of various gods, the ancient Egyptians strongly believed in life after death. Consequently, Osiris, a god associated with the afterlife, held significant importance in their religious beliefs. Alongside Osiris, his wife Isis and their son Horus were also revered and worshipped.

Inventions

• The ancient Egyptians were highly pragmatic and adept at applying engineering principles to construct immense structures like the pyramids. Despite lacking pulleys, they devised ingenious methods involving sledges, rollers, and ramps to move and lift heavy stone blocks. 
• Additionally, the Egyptians studied the stars and formulated calendars based on both the lunar phases and the solar year (astronomy). Their sophisticated irrigation system was intricately tied to the flooding patterns of the Nile River.

History

Earliest Egypt

• Human settlements along the Nile River can be traced back at least 10,000 years. Initially, the narrow Nile valley was filled with swamps and vegetation, including trees, rushes, and papyrus plants. 
• Over time, the river's continuous flow deposited nutrient-rich silt, transforming the landscape into a broad delta at its mouth. As the swamps were cleared, people established villages and learned the art of agriculture, cultivating crops.
• Gradually, two distinct kingdoms emerged: Upper Egypt in the southern part of the narrow river valley and Lower Egypt in the northern region, encompassing the fertile delta where the river meets the sea.
• Around 2900 BCE, a king named Menes succeeded in unifying the two regions of Egypt. He founded the capital city of Memphis, situated near present-day Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt.

Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms

• Following the reign of Menes, ancient Egypt witnessed the rule of numerous pharaohs. Throughout its long history, over 30 dynasties governed the land. Three significant periods emerged in Egyptian history, namely the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
• The Old Kingdom, lasting from 2575 to 2130 BCE, is renowned for the construction of the great pyramids. Among the most famous are the pyramids of Giza, built during the 4th dynasty by Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaure. The method by which the ancient Egyptians built these massive stone structures with their limited technology remains a subject of fascination and inquiry. The Great Sphinx, located near the second pyramid, captivates observers with its lion-like body and human facial features.
• Following a period of civil wars and fragmentation until about 1938 BCE, the Middle Kingdom began, lasting until 1630 BCE. During this time, Egyptian rule extended into neighboring regions like Nubia, Syria, and Palestine. The capital was relocated to Thebes, leading to a flourishing period of art and architecture, though only a few buildings from this era have endured to the present.
• A subsequent period of weakness occurred, marked by the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asian people. By 1539 BCE, the Egyptians managed to drive out the Hyksos, ushering in the New Kingdom, which persisted until 1075 BCE.
• Thutmose III was a formidable pharaoh during the New Kingdom, reigning from 1479 to 1426 BCE, and presided over Egypt's peak of power and prosperity. He expanded Egyptian territories into Syria and commissioned the construction of numerous tombs and temples, including the impressive tombs in the Valley of the Kings, located west of Thebes.
• During the 19th dynasty, Egypt was protected by strong kings, and Ramses II, who ruled from 1279 to 1213 BCE, undertook an extensive building program. However, following Ramses' rule, Egypt faced internal turmoil, leading to a divided country, frequent riots, strikes, and general disorder.

Alexander and the Ptolemies

• In the course of history, different Asian peoples, starting with the Assyrians and later the Persians, took control of Egypt. Subsequently, in 332 BCE, Alexander the Great from Macedonia, a country near Greece, conquered Egypt and established the city of Alexandria at the Nile's mouth.
• After Alexander's demise, one of his generals named Ptolemy seized the throne in 323 BCE, inaugurating a new dynasty known as the Ptolemies. Being Macedonians who spoke Greek, the Ptolemies faced resistance from many Egyptians who were uncomfortable with foreign rulers.
• Despite this, the Ptolemies' rule witnessed Egypt's prosperity and influence. They erected the Pharos, an enormous lighthouse in Alexandria, which, like the great pyramids, was counted among the seven wonders of the ancient world. Additionally, they established a renowned library in Alexandria, attracting scholars from all corners of the Greek-speaking world to engage in academic pursuits there.

Roman and Muslim Conquests

• The Ptolemaic dynasty came to an end with Queen Cleopatra, and in 31 BCE, her navy was defeated by Roman forces in the Battle of Actium. As a result, Egypt lost its independence and became a part of the Roman Empire in 30 BCE. 
• When the Roman Empire later divided into two halves in the 300s CE, Egypt became part of the eastern half known as the Byzantine Empire.
• In the 600s CE, Muslim Arabs conquered Egypt, marking a significant turning point in its history. Since then, Egypt has remained a predominantly Muslim country up to the present day.