History of Goa with Special Reference to its Feudal Features | Goa State PSC (GPSC) Preparation - GPSC (Goa) PDF Download

 Page 1


Abstract
This article deals with some aspects of the history of Goa from the fifth century AD 
to the early eleventh century in a larger historical perspective. It is a novel attempt 
to examine the issue of feudalism in Goa. During this period Goa was part of one or 
the other larger kingdoms of the Deccan and it existed as a feudatory political entity. 
It was a region that was much sought after due to its geopolitical and commercial 
importance. The various inscriptions issued by the Bhojas, Konkan Mauryas, Badami 
Chalukyas and Shilaharas are analysed here with a view to identify and delineate the 
feudal features that were present in early medieval Goa. They included decentralisa-
tion of political authority, system of land grants, sub-infeudation of land grants, absence 
of large-scale exchange of goods and dominant role of the Brahmanas in the manage-
ment of land and administration. Such characteristics are noticed in Goa from the 
beginning of the fifth century AD to the end of the tenth century AD. Subsequently 
Goa witnessed the decline of feudalism, and increase in trade coupled with urbanisa-
tion. There was emergence of substantial trade and urbanisation in the region by the 
beginning of the eleventh century AD.
Keywords
Goa, dynasties, rulers, feudatories, Sahyadri Khanda, copper plates, inscriptions, feudalism, 
land grants, decentralisation, Brahmana settlements, Khajjana, Srenis, Mathas, Hanjamana, 
Gaoncars, ports, Arab trade, urban centres, Chandrapura, Gopakapattana
Introduction
The ancient history of Goa is shrouded in mystery due to the paucity of sources for its 
reconstruction. This has resulted in some assumptions and tentative conclusions relating 
to the early history of Goa. It is probable that even one of the rajjukas (commissioners) of 
the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, might have governed Goa. However, no material remains 
of the Mauryan period are found so far in Goa. The Satavahanas who were powerful in 
Page 2


Abstract
This article deals with some aspects of the history of Goa from the fifth century AD 
to the early eleventh century in a larger historical perspective. It is a novel attempt 
to examine the issue of feudalism in Goa. During this period Goa was part of one or 
the other larger kingdoms of the Deccan and it existed as a feudatory political entity. 
It was a region that was much sought after due to its geopolitical and commercial 
importance. The various inscriptions issued by the Bhojas, Konkan Mauryas, Badami 
Chalukyas and Shilaharas are analysed here with a view to identify and delineate the 
feudal features that were present in early medieval Goa. They included decentralisa-
tion of political authority, system of land grants, sub-infeudation of land grants, absence 
of large-scale exchange of goods and dominant role of the Brahmanas in the manage-
ment of land and administration. Such characteristics are noticed in Goa from the 
beginning of the fifth century AD to the end of the tenth century AD. Subsequently 
Goa witnessed the decline of feudalism, and increase in trade coupled with urbanisa-
tion. There was emergence of substantial trade and urbanisation in the region by the 
beginning of the eleventh century AD.
Keywords
Goa, dynasties, rulers, feudatories, Sahyadri Khanda, copper plates, inscriptions, feudalism, 
land grants, decentralisation, Brahmana settlements, Khajjana, Srenis, Mathas, Hanjamana, 
Gaoncars, ports, Arab trade, urban centres, Chandrapura, Gopakapattana
Introduction
The ancient history of Goa is shrouded in mystery due to the paucity of sources for its 
reconstruction. This has resulted in some assumptions and tentative conclusions relating 
to the early history of Goa. It is probable that even one of the rajjukas (commissioners) of 
the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, might have governed Goa. However, no material remains 
of the Mauryan period are found so far in Goa. The Satavahanas who were powerful in 
  
the Deccan might have had Goa as one of their tributaries. The Satavahana coins, earthen 
ware and bricks have been unearthed from Chandrapura in Goa. It is possible that the 
Chutu dynasty which ruled over the Kuntala territory also had control over Goa.
1
 While 
all these are indicated only in a few sources, further historical investigation is required to 
throw more light on the pre-Bhoja period in Goa’s history. The recorded history of Goa is 
traced back tentatively to the third or the fourth century AD. Nevertheless, there are many 
topics in the history of Goa during the pre-Kadamba period which needs further research. 
The genealogy and chronology of the Bhojas, the Konkan Mauryas, extent of their 
territories, nature of their administration, their relations with their suzerains and socio-
economic milieu need much more clarification. Similarly, there are many historical details 
of the Chalukyan and Shilahara rule in Goa which require advanced elucidation.
This article analyses the history of Goa from the period of the Bhojas to the end of 
the Shilahara rule, roughly covering the period from the fifth century AD to the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. For the first time an attempt is made here to analyse the 
feudal features that existed in Goa. 
One common feature of Goa’s history during this period was that Goa was a part of 
larger kingdoms, that is, the Bhoja, the Konkan Maurya, the Badami Chalukya and the 
Goa Shilahara reigns were not just confined to the region of Goa only. Further while 
the ruling periods of the Bhojas and the Konkan Mauryas more or less coincided, 
both of them overlapped with that of the Chalukyas at least for some time. During 
the Chalukyan period, Goa existed as a feudatory political entity. Besides, the Goa 
Shilaharas ruled first as the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and later on as 
that of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. V .T. Gune has rightly remarked that ‘the defence of the 
west coast of the Rashtrakutas and later on the Chalukyan Empire was the responsibility 
of their feudatories, Shilaharas and the Kadambas’.
2
 Obviously, the territory of Goa con-
tinued to exist as a peripheral or feudatory region in the political field. The powers of the 
Deccan like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Chalukyas of 
Kalyani administered Goa as the political overlords through their feudatories or represen-
tatives. However, Goa was a much sought after region due to its geographical and stra-
tegic importance. The ports of Chandrapura and Gopakapattana, and the coastal or sea 
trade that they facilitated were the special attractions for the different political powers. 
The Bhojas
From around the fourth to the seventh century AD some Bhoja kings had ruled from 
Goa.
3
 Out of the six copper plates with grants of the Bhojas of the South Konkan 
inscribed on them, three are found in Goa. The discovery of the Siroda copper 
  
Page 3


Abstract
This article deals with some aspects of the history of Goa from the fifth century AD 
to the early eleventh century in a larger historical perspective. It is a novel attempt 
to examine the issue of feudalism in Goa. During this period Goa was part of one or 
the other larger kingdoms of the Deccan and it existed as a feudatory political entity. 
It was a region that was much sought after due to its geopolitical and commercial 
importance. The various inscriptions issued by the Bhojas, Konkan Mauryas, Badami 
Chalukyas and Shilaharas are analysed here with a view to identify and delineate the 
feudal features that were present in early medieval Goa. They included decentralisa-
tion of political authority, system of land grants, sub-infeudation of land grants, absence 
of large-scale exchange of goods and dominant role of the Brahmanas in the manage-
ment of land and administration. Such characteristics are noticed in Goa from the 
beginning of the fifth century AD to the end of the tenth century AD. Subsequently 
Goa witnessed the decline of feudalism, and increase in trade coupled with urbanisa-
tion. There was emergence of substantial trade and urbanisation in the region by the 
beginning of the eleventh century AD.
Keywords
Goa, dynasties, rulers, feudatories, Sahyadri Khanda, copper plates, inscriptions, feudalism, 
land grants, decentralisation, Brahmana settlements, Khajjana, Srenis, Mathas, Hanjamana, 
Gaoncars, ports, Arab trade, urban centres, Chandrapura, Gopakapattana
Introduction
The ancient history of Goa is shrouded in mystery due to the paucity of sources for its 
reconstruction. This has resulted in some assumptions and tentative conclusions relating 
to the early history of Goa. It is probable that even one of the rajjukas (commissioners) of 
the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, might have governed Goa. However, no material remains 
of the Mauryan period are found so far in Goa. The Satavahanas who were powerful in 
  
the Deccan might have had Goa as one of their tributaries. The Satavahana coins, earthen 
ware and bricks have been unearthed from Chandrapura in Goa. It is possible that the 
Chutu dynasty which ruled over the Kuntala territory also had control over Goa.
1
 While 
all these are indicated only in a few sources, further historical investigation is required to 
throw more light on the pre-Bhoja period in Goa’s history. The recorded history of Goa is 
traced back tentatively to the third or the fourth century AD. Nevertheless, there are many 
topics in the history of Goa during the pre-Kadamba period which needs further research. 
The genealogy and chronology of the Bhojas, the Konkan Mauryas, extent of their 
territories, nature of their administration, their relations with their suzerains and socio-
economic milieu need much more clarification. Similarly, there are many historical details 
of the Chalukyan and Shilahara rule in Goa which require advanced elucidation.
This article analyses the history of Goa from the period of the Bhojas to the end of 
the Shilahara rule, roughly covering the period from the fifth century AD to the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. For the first time an attempt is made here to analyse the 
feudal features that existed in Goa. 
One common feature of Goa’s history during this period was that Goa was a part of 
larger kingdoms, that is, the Bhoja, the Konkan Maurya, the Badami Chalukya and the 
Goa Shilahara reigns were not just confined to the region of Goa only. Further while 
the ruling periods of the Bhojas and the Konkan Mauryas more or less coincided, 
both of them overlapped with that of the Chalukyas at least for some time. During 
the Chalukyan period, Goa existed as a feudatory political entity. Besides, the Goa 
Shilaharas ruled first as the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and later on as 
that of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. V .T. Gune has rightly remarked that ‘the defence of the 
west coast of the Rashtrakutas and later on the Chalukyan Empire was the responsibility 
of their feudatories, Shilaharas and the Kadambas’.
2
 Obviously, the territory of Goa con-
tinued to exist as a peripheral or feudatory region in the political field. The powers of the 
Deccan like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Chalukyas of 
Kalyani administered Goa as the political overlords through their feudatories or represen-
tatives. However, Goa was a much sought after region due to its geographical and stra-
tegic importance. The ports of Chandrapura and Gopakapattana, and the coastal or sea 
trade that they facilitated were the special attractions for the different political powers. 
The Bhojas
From around the fourth to the seventh century AD some Bhoja kings had ruled from 
Goa.
3
 Out of the six copper plates with grants of the Bhojas of the South Konkan 
inscribed on them, three are found in Goa. The discovery of the Siroda copper 
  
 
plate
4
 of the Bhojas traced back the history of Goa to c. 400 AD. The king, Devaraja, 
associated with this plate was the first known ruler of the Bhoja dynasty. The plate 
was issued from Chandrapura or Chandor (in Salcete taluka), situated on the bank of 
the river Paroda.
5
 The royal emblem of the Bhojas was elephant and can be seen on 
the seal of the copper plate. It is written in southern Brahmi script, and the language 
used is mainly Sanskrit, with some expressions in Prakrit. The plate was composed 
by the Rahasya Adhikari or Private Secretary of the king, Prabhakara. It records a 
grant or gift of tolls from the village, Thanniyarka Kottinkayya (identified with 
Tanem-Kuttal or Thana Cortalim in Salsette), in the division of Jiyaya, to two 
Brahmanas, namely, Govindasvamin and Indrasvamin of Bharadvaja gotra, along 
with house-site and pasture land for cows. The king ratified these gifts made by 
Prabhu Naga-Bhogikamatya, who seems to be an official having feudatory status. 
The inscription shows delegation of authority of toll collection to Brahmanas. This 
shows that the Brahmanas had participated in secular activities, such as, management 
of farm land, agricultural production and toll collection. In this way, the state dele-
gated its power to beneficiaries of grants. Along with tolls, the inscription also refers 
to grant of house-site (griha sthana) and pasture land for cows to beneficiaries. The 
house-site indicates the settlement of Brahmanas as landlords. The peasants would 
have served the Brahmanas as serfs. This is because without assistance of peasants, 
the Brahmanas could not have cultivated the land. The reference to pasture land indi-
cates the existence of cattle without which cultivation of land was almost 
impossible.
The other two copper plates of the Bhojas were found in Bandora (Bandiwadi) of 
Ponda taluka and were issued by Prithivimallavarman. These are dated to the latter half 
of the fifth century AD.
6
 The first grant refers to the grant of a field to a Brahmana, and 
the second one is addressed to the present and future Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins, 
 
 
 
Page 4


Abstract
This article deals with some aspects of the history of Goa from the fifth century AD 
to the early eleventh century in a larger historical perspective. It is a novel attempt 
to examine the issue of feudalism in Goa. During this period Goa was part of one or 
the other larger kingdoms of the Deccan and it existed as a feudatory political entity. 
It was a region that was much sought after due to its geopolitical and commercial 
importance. The various inscriptions issued by the Bhojas, Konkan Mauryas, Badami 
Chalukyas and Shilaharas are analysed here with a view to identify and delineate the 
feudal features that were present in early medieval Goa. They included decentralisa-
tion of political authority, system of land grants, sub-infeudation of land grants, absence 
of large-scale exchange of goods and dominant role of the Brahmanas in the manage-
ment of land and administration. Such characteristics are noticed in Goa from the 
beginning of the fifth century AD to the end of the tenth century AD. Subsequently 
Goa witnessed the decline of feudalism, and increase in trade coupled with urbanisa-
tion. There was emergence of substantial trade and urbanisation in the region by the 
beginning of the eleventh century AD.
Keywords
Goa, dynasties, rulers, feudatories, Sahyadri Khanda, copper plates, inscriptions, feudalism, 
land grants, decentralisation, Brahmana settlements, Khajjana, Srenis, Mathas, Hanjamana, 
Gaoncars, ports, Arab trade, urban centres, Chandrapura, Gopakapattana
Introduction
The ancient history of Goa is shrouded in mystery due to the paucity of sources for its 
reconstruction. This has resulted in some assumptions and tentative conclusions relating 
to the early history of Goa. It is probable that even one of the rajjukas (commissioners) of 
the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, might have governed Goa. However, no material remains 
of the Mauryan period are found so far in Goa. The Satavahanas who were powerful in 
  
the Deccan might have had Goa as one of their tributaries. The Satavahana coins, earthen 
ware and bricks have been unearthed from Chandrapura in Goa. It is possible that the 
Chutu dynasty which ruled over the Kuntala territory also had control over Goa.
1
 While 
all these are indicated only in a few sources, further historical investigation is required to 
throw more light on the pre-Bhoja period in Goa’s history. The recorded history of Goa is 
traced back tentatively to the third or the fourth century AD. Nevertheless, there are many 
topics in the history of Goa during the pre-Kadamba period which needs further research. 
The genealogy and chronology of the Bhojas, the Konkan Mauryas, extent of their 
territories, nature of their administration, their relations with their suzerains and socio-
economic milieu need much more clarification. Similarly, there are many historical details 
of the Chalukyan and Shilahara rule in Goa which require advanced elucidation.
This article analyses the history of Goa from the period of the Bhojas to the end of 
the Shilahara rule, roughly covering the period from the fifth century AD to the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. For the first time an attempt is made here to analyse the 
feudal features that existed in Goa. 
One common feature of Goa’s history during this period was that Goa was a part of 
larger kingdoms, that is, the Bhoja, the Konkan Maurya, the Badami Chalukya and the 
Goa Shilahara reigns were not just confined to the region of Goa only. Further while 
the ruling periods of the Bhojas and the Konkan Mauryas more or less coincided, 
both of them overlapped with that of the Chalukyas at least for some time. During 
the Chalukyan period, Goa existed as a feudatory political entity. Besides, the Goa 
Shilaharas ruled first as the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and later on as 
that of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. V .T. Gune has rightly remarked that ‘the defence of the 
west coast of the Rashtrakutas and later on the Chalukyan Empire was the responsibility 
of their feudatories, Shilaharas and the Kadambas’.
2
 Obviously, the territory of Goa con-
tinued to exist as a peripheral or feudatory region in the political field. The powers of the 
Deccan like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Chalukyas of 
Kalyani administered Goa as the political overlords through their feudatories or represen-
tatives. However, Goa was a much sought after region due to its geographical and stra-
tegic importance. The ports of Chandrapura and Gopakapattana, and the coastal or sea 
trade that they facilitated were the special attractions for the different political powers. 
The Bhojas
From around the fourth to the seventh century AD some Bhoja kings had ruled from 
Goa.
3
 Out of the six copper plates with grants of the Bhojas of the South Konkan 
inscribed on them, three are found in Goa. The discovery of the Siroda copper 
  
 
plate
4
 of the Bhojas traced back the history of Goa to c. 400 AD. The king, Devaraja, 
associated with this plate was the first known ruler of the Bhoja dynasty. The plate 
was issued from Chandrapura or Chandor (in Salcete taluka), situated on the bank of 
the river Paroda.
5
 The royal emblem of the Bhojas was elephant and can be seen on 
the seal of the copper plate. It is written in southern Brahmi script, and the language 
used is mainly Sanskrit, with some expressions in Prakrit. The plate was composed 
by the Rahasya Adhikari or Private Secretary of the king, Prabhakara. It records a 
grant or gift of tolls from the village, Thanniyarka Kottinkayya (identified with 
Tanem-Kuttal or Thana Cortalim in Salsette), in the division of Jiyaya, to two 
Brahmanas, namely, Govindasvamin and Indrasvamin of Bharadvaja gotra, along 
with house-site and pasture land for cows. The king ratified these gifts made by 
Prabhu Naga-Bhogikamatya, who seems to be an official having feudatory status. 
The inscription shows delegation of authority of toll collection to Brahmanas. This 
shows that the Brahmanas had participated in secular activities, such as, management 
of farm land, agricultural production and toll collection. In this way, the state dele-
gated its power to beneficiaries of grants. Along with tolls, the inscription also refers 
to grant of house-site (griha sthana) and pasture land for cows to beneficiaries. The 
house-site indicates the settlement of Brahmanas as landlords. The peasants would 
have served the Brahmanas as serfs. This is because without assistance of peasants, 
the Brahmanas could not have cultivated the land. The reference to pasture land indi-
cates the existence of cattle without which cultivation of land was almost 
impossible.
The other two copper plates of the Bhojas were found in Bandora (Bandiwadi) of 
Ponda taluka and were issued by Prithivimallavarman. These are dated to the latter half 
of the fifth century AD.
6
 The first grant refers to the grant of a field to a Brahmana, and 
the second one is addressed to the present and future Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins, 
 
 
 
  
and it also records the grant of a field named Kapoti Khajjana to a Brahmana.
7
 The 
main objective of the first inscription was to record grant of a field in the village of 
Bhagala-pallika to the donee Madhvarya of Agniveshya gotra. It is mentioned that the 
grant was made for merit of the king’s mother Chetasadevi. The grant is addressed to 
subordinate officials like the Bhojakas, Ayuktas and Sthayins. Interestingly, the king 
is not introduced with any royal title. But due to reference to the subordinates, it is 
assumed that the king was independent. It is possible that these officials were, in actual-
ity, king’s feudatories.
8
 The second inscription is issued from the place Prithviparvata. 
The main purpose of this charter was to record grant of a field called Kapoti-khajjana, 
situated in the village Malara, to Damarya of Bharadwaja gotra. The charter was written 
by Buddhadasa of the Kamboja gotra. The term khajjana can refer to rice cultivation in 
this region. Rice cultivation, which was labour intensive, needed exploitation of local 
peasant population.
9
 Both these copper plates refer to land grants made to the Brahmanas. 
The names and gotras of the two Brahmanas or the recipients of the grants, the officials 
involved in writing the inscription and the execution of the grant are also mentioned. One 
of the grants is also addressed to the present and future Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins. 
This indicates that the village officials were given due importance in the administration. 
The two donees could have been either from the same place or from an outside area, but 
they were identified by the state and they in turn represented the authority of the state. 
The state utilised the services of the Brahmanas in administering the particular locality. 
Of the remaining three, two copper plates of the Bhojas are from Uttara Kannada 
district, namely, the Hiregutti (Kumta taluk) copper plate of Asamkita and the Arga 
(Arga or Arge village near Karwar) copper plate of Kapalivarman. On palaeographical 
grounds the Hiregutti copper plate is dated approximately to the end of the fifth cen-
tury or the beginning of the sixth century AD, and the Arga copper plate is dated to the 
early part of the sixth century AD. Only one copper plate was found in Kopoli village 
of Khanapur taluk of Belgaum district which mentions the king Asamkitavarman of 
the Bhoja lineage. The Kopoli copper plates of the Bhoja king Asamkitavarman refers 
to the chief Elakella of the Kaikeya lineage, who at the instance of the king granted a 
valley (land) to a Brahmana, Nagasharman, of the Harita gotra. This reference to the 
Kaikeyas, a north Indian dynasty, is in tune with what some other south Indian dynas-
ties like the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madura did. In fact, claiming Aryan 
descent and establishing some relation with a north Indian dynasty was quite common 
in early medieval south India. The grant was written by the son of Govinda-bhogika 
 
 
 
 
Page 5


Abstract
This article deals with some aspects of the history of Goa from the fifth century AD 
to the early eleventh century in a larger historical perspective. It is a novel attempt 
to examine the issue of feudalism in Goa. During this period Goa was part of one or 
the other larger kingdoms of the Deccan and it existed as a feudatory political entity. 
It was a region that was much sought after due to its geopolitical and commercial 
importance. The various inscriptions issued by the Bhojas, Konkan Mauryas, Badami 
Chalukyas and Shilaharas are analysed here with a view to identify and delineate the 
feudal features that were present in early medieval Goa. They included decentralisa-
tion of political authority, system of land grants, sub-infeudation of land grants, absence 
of large-scale exchange of goods and dominant role of the Brahmanas in the manage-
ment of land and administration. Such characteristics are noticed in Goa from the 
beginning of the fifth century AD to the end of the tenth century AD. Subsequently 
Goa witnessed the decline of feudalism, and increase in trade coupled with urbanisa-
tion. There was emergence of substantial trade and urbanisation in the region by the 
beginning of the eleventh century AD.
Keywords
Goa, dynasties, rulers, feudatories, Sahyadri Khanda, copper plates, inscriptions, feudalism, 
land grants, decentralisation, Brahmana settlements, Khajjana, Srenis, Mathas, Hanjamana, 
Gaoncars, ports, Arab trade, urban centres, Chandrapura, Gopakapattana
Introduction
The ancient history of Goa is shrouded in mystery due to the paucity of sources for its 
reconstruction. This has resulted in some assumptions and tentative conclusions relating 
to the early history of Goa. It is probable that even one of the rajjukas (commissioners) of 
the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, might have governed Goa. However, no material remains 
of the Mauryan period are found so far in Goa. The Satavahanas who were powerful in 
  
the Deccan might have had Goa as one of their tributaries. The Satavahana coins, earthen 
ware and bricks have been unearthed from Chandrapura in Goa. It is possible that the 
Chutu dynasty which ruled over the Kuntala territory also had control over Goa.
1
 While 
all these are indicated only in a few sources, further historical investigation is required to 
throw more light on the pre-Bhoja period in Goa’s history. The recorded history of Goa is 
traced back tentatively to the third or the fourth century AD. Nevertheless, there are many 
topics in the history of Goa during the pre-Kadamba period which needs further research. 
The genealogy and chronology of the Bhojas, the Konkan Mauryas, extent of their 
territories, nature of their administration, their relations with their suzerains and socio-
economic milieu need much more clarification. Similarly, there are many historical details 
of the Chalukyan and Shilahara rule in Goa which require advanced elucidation.
This article analyses the history of Goa from the period of the Bhojas to the end of 
the Shilahara rule, roughly covering the period from the fifth century AD to the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. For the first time an attempt is made here to analyse the 
feudal features that existed in Goa. 
One common feature of Goa’s history during this period was that Goa was a part of 
larger kingdoms, that is, the Bhoja, the Konkan Maurya, the Badami Chalukya and the 
Goa Shilahara reigns were not just confined to the region of Goa only. Further while 
the ruling periods of the Bhojas and the Konkan Mauryas more or less coincided, 
both of them overlapped with that of the Chalukyas at least for some time. During 
the Chalukyan period, Goa existed as a feudatory political entity. Besides, the Goa 
Shilaharas ruled first as the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and later on as 
that of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. V .T. Gune has rightly remarked that ‘the defence of the 
west coast of the Rashtrakutas and later on the Chalukyan Empire was the responsibility 
of their feudatories, Shilaharas and the Kadambas’.
2
 Obviously, the territory of Goa con-
tinued to exist as a peripheral or feudatory region in the political field. The powers of the 
Deccan like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Chalukyas of 
Kalyani administered Goa as the political overlords through their feudatories or represen-
tatives. However, Goa was a much sought after region due to its geographical and stra-
tegic importance. The ports of Chandrapura and Gopakapattana, and the coastal or sea 
trade that they facilitated were the special attractions for the different political powers. 
The Bhojas
From around the fourth to the seventh century AD some Bhoja kings had ruled from 
Goa.
3
 Out of the six copper plates with grants of the Bhojas of the South Konkan 
inscribed on them, three are found in Goa. The discovery of the Siroda copper 
  
 
plate
4
 of the Bhojas traced back the history of Goa to c. 400 AD. The king, Devaraja, 
associated with this plate was the first known ruler of the Bhoja dynasty. The plate 
was issued from Chandrapura or Chandor (in Salcete taluka), situated on the bank of 
the river Paroda.
5
 The royal emblem of the Bhojas was elephant and can be seen on 
the seal of the copper plate. It is written in southern Brahmi script, and the language 
used is mainly Sanskrit, with some expressions in Prakrit. The plate was composed 
by the Rahasya Adhikari or Private Secretary of the king, Prabhakara. It records a 
grant or gift of tolls from the village, Thanniyarka Kottinkayya (identified with 
Tanem-Kuttal or Thana Cortalim in Salsette), in the division of Jiyaya, to two 
Brahmanas, namely, Govindasvamin and Indrasvamin of Bharadvaja gotra, along 
with house-site and pasture land for cows. The king ratified these gifts made by 
Prabhu Naga-Bhogikamatya, who seems to be an official having feudatory status. 
The inscription shows delegation of authority of toll collection to Brahmanas. This 
shows that the Brahmanas had participated in secular activities, such as, management 
of farm land, agricultural production and toll collection. In this way, the state dele-
gated its power to beneficiaries of grants. Along with tolls, the inscription also refers 
to grant of house-site (griha sthana) and pasture land for cows to beneficiaries. The 
house-site indicates the settlement of Brahmanas as landlords. The peasants would 
have served the Brahmanas as serfs. This is because without assistance of peasants, 
the Brahmanas could not have cultivated the land. The reference to pasture land indi-
cates the existence of cattle without which cultivation of land was almost 
impossible.
The other two copper plates of the Bhojas were found in Bandora (Bandiwadi) of 
Ponda taluka and were issued by Prithivimallavarman. These are dated to the latter half 
of the fifth century AD.
6
 The first grant refers to the grant of a field to a Brahmana, and 
the second one is addressed to the present and future Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins, 
 
 
 
  
and it also records the grant of a field named Kapoti Khajjana to a Brahmana.
7
 The 
main objective of the first inscription was to record grant of a field in the village of 
Bhagala-pallika to the donee Madhvarya of Agniveshya gotra. It is mentioned that the 
grant was made for merit of the king’s mother Chetasadevi. The grant is addressed to 
subordinate officials like the Bhojakas, Ayuktas and Sthayins. Interestingly, the king 
is not introduced with any royal title. But due to reference to the subordinates, it is 
assumed that the king was independent. It is possible that these officials were, in actual-
ity, king’s feudatories.
8
 The second inscription is issued from the place Prithviparvata. 
The main purpose of this charter was to record grant of a field called Kapoti-khajjana, 
situated in the village Malara, to Damarya of Bharadwaja gotra. The charter was written 
by Buddhadasa of the Kamboja gotra. The term khajjana can refer to rice cultivation in 
this region. Rice cultivation, which was labour intensive, needed exploitation of local 
peasant population.
9
 Both these copper plates refer to land grants made to the Brahmanas. 
The names and gotras of the two Brahmanas or the recipients of the grants, the officials 
involved in writing the inscription and the execution of the grant are also mentioned. One 
of the grants is also addressed to the present and future Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins. 
This indicates that the village officials were given due importance in the administration. 
The two donees could have been either from the same place or from an outside area, but 
they were identified by the state and they in turn represented the authority of the state. 
The state utilised the services of the Brahmanas in administering the particular locality. 
Of the remaining three, two copper plates of the Bhojas are from Uttara Kannada 
district, namely, the Hiregutti (Kumta taluk) copper plate of Asamkita and the Arga 
(Arga or Arge village near Karwar) copper plate of Kapalivarman. On palaeographical 
grounds the Hiregutti copper plate is dated approximately to the end of the fifth cen-
tury or the beginning of the sixth century AD, and the Arga copper plate is dated to the 
early part of the sixth century AD. Only one copper plate was found in Kopoli village 
of Khanapur taluk of Belgaum district which mentions the king Asamkitavarman of 
the Bhoja lineage. The Kopoli copper plates of the Bhoja king Asamkitavarman refers 
to the chief Elakella of the Kaikeya lineage, who at the instance of the king granted a 
valley (land) to a Brahmana, Nagasharman, of the Harita gotra. This reference to the 
Kaikeyas, a north Indian dynasty, is in tune with what some other south Indian dynas-
ties like the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madura did. In fact, claiming Aryan 
descent and establishing some relation with a north Indian dynasty was quite common 
in early medieval south India. The grant was written by the son of Govinda-bhogika 
 
 
 
 
 
and he was the official who was entrusted with the work of writing royal charters. This 
indicates that the Bhojas issued various charters to patronise Brahmanas.
10
 
From the find-spots of these six plates, it is evident that the Bhojas ruled over parts 
of Goa, Uttara Kannada, Belgaum and Dharwad districts of Karnataka state. In Uttara 
Kannada, the capital of the Bhojas was at Sivapura, and in Goa it was at Chandrapur. In 
fact, Chandrapur continued as the centre of political power for the post-Bhoja dynasties 
also in Goa. The six plates have provided us the names of the Bhoja kings—Devaraja, 
Asamkita, Asamkitavarman, Prithivimallavarman, Kapalivarman, Chetasadevi (the 
mother of  Prithivimallavarman) and Satrudamana (the brother of Prithivimallavarman). 
They belonged to the period from the fourth to the seventh century AD.
11
 The geneal-
ogy of the Bhojas is not furnished in any of the six copper plates.
12
 
The Bhojas might have had well-organised administrative machinery for conduct-
ing the affairs of the government. They had officials like Bhogika Amatya (Minister 
for Revenue and Finance), Sarvatantradhikari (Chief Administrator), Rahasyadhikari 
(Private Secretary), Bhogikas, Ayuktas and Sthayins.
13
 As the designation of Bhogika or 
Bhojaka meant village headman, probably there existed some kind of village commune 
which had developed during the subsequent centuries. All their records are written in 
Sanskrit language.
14
 They seem to have taken interest in the development of agriculture 
and issued grants of marshy lands by the seaside (khajjana) to the Brahmanas and others 
for their development.
15
 
The Bhojas adhered to the Brahmanical religion and also supported Buddhism.
16
 
They issued land grants to both the Brahmanas and the Buddhists. The Hiregutti plates 
of Bhoja Asamkita refer to grant of land to Buddhist viharas. This inscription shows 
that Bhojas patronised Buddhism. The inscription, which belongs to fifth–sixth century 
AD praises Lord Buddha, his disciples and King Asamkita. The inscription was written 
to record the gift of village Sundarika of Dipaka Vishaya
17
 for the enjoyment of the