Human Settlements Class 12 Geography

A settlement refers to a location where people reside on a relatively permanent basis. While the houses and buildings within the settlement may undergo changes in design or function over time, the settlement itself persists in both time and space.

Classification of Settlements Rural Urban Dichotomy

• Differentiating settlements as rural or urban is a widely accepted practice, although there is no unanimous agreement on the exact characteristics that distinguish a village from a town. One of the commonly used criteria for such differentiation is the occupation of the inhabitants. Other factors that are used for this purpose include population size, administrative divisions, and types of residences.
• In recent times, sub-urbanization has emerged as a new trend where people move away from crowded urban areas to cleaner regions outside the city, in search of a better quality of life.
• As per the 1991 census of India, settlements are classified as urban if they meet the following criteria: have a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, have a minimum population of 5000 individuals, at least 75% of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural activities, and the population density is at least 400 individuals per square kilometer.

Types and Patterns of Settlements

• Settlements can also be categorized based on their shape, patterns, and types. The primary classifications based on shape are compact or nucleated settlements and dispersed settlements.
• Compact or Nucleated settlements refer to communities where a large number of houses are constructed in close proximity to each other. These types of settlements are typically found in fertile plains and along river valleys. The inhabitants of these settlements share common occupations and have a closely-knit community.
• On the other hand, Dispersed Settlements are characterized by houses that are spaced out from each other, often surrounded by fields. These types of settlements are often bound together by cultural features such as markets or places of worship.

Rural Settlements

• Rural settlements are closely and primarily associated with land, and are usually dominated by agricultural, animal husbandry, and fishing activities.
• Various factors influence the location of rural settlements. For instance, the availability of water is a key factor, and rural settlements are typically situated close to water sources such as rivers, lakes, and springs. Rivers and lakes are often used for irrigating farmlands.
• Another important factor is the quality of the land, with people preferring to settle in areas that have fertile soil suitable for agriculture. In low-lying river basins, people may choose to settle on terraces and levees which are "dry points" to prevent damage to houses and loss of life.
• The availability of building materials, such as wood and stone, is another important consideration for rural settlements. Early villages were often built in forest clearings where wood was readily available.
• During times of political instability, war, or hostility from neighboring groups, villages were often built on defensive hills and islands for protection.
• Finally, some rural settlements are planned, meaning that they are constructed by the government or other entities, providing essential infrastructure such as shelter and water on acquired lands.

Rural Settlement Patterns

• The way houses are situated in relation to each other is known as the pattern or shape of a village, and is influenced by factors such as the site of the village and the surrounding topography.
• Rural settlements can be classified based on various criteria. One such criterion is the setting, which includes plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages, forest villages, and desert villages. Another criterion is the functions of the village, such as farming villages, fishermen's villages, lumberjack villages, and pastoral villages.
• Settlements can also be classified based on their forms or shapes, which include various geometrical patterns such as linear, rectangular, circular, star-like, T-shaped, Y-shaped, cross-shaped, and double village settlements.
• Linear settlements are typically located along a road, railway line, river, canal, or valley levee. Rectangular settlements are commonly found in plain areas or wide intermontane valleys, where roads cut each other at right angles. Circular settlements, on the other hand, develop around lakes or tanks, with the central part often remaining open for keeping animals.
• Star-shaped settlements develop where several roads converge, while T-shaped, Y-shaped, and cross-shaped settlements emerge at tri-junctions or where two roads converge on a third one. Double villages extend on both sides of a river where a bridge or ferry is present.

Problems of Rural Settlements

• Rural settlements in developing countries are numerous and often lacking in adequate infrastructure. Water supply to these settlements is insufficient, and the absence of proper facilities for waste disposal and sanitation lead to health concerns.
• Houses constructed from mud, wood, and thatch are prone to damage during inclement weather, requiring annual maintenance. Additionally, the absence of paved roads and modern communication networks present unique challenges.

Urban Settlements

Around 1810, London became the first urban settlement to have a population of one million. At present, over half of the world's population resides in urban settlements, accounting for 54% of the global population.

Classification of Urban Settlements

• The way urban areas are defined can differ between countries, with some using criteria such as population size, employment patterns, and administrative organization to classify them.

Population Size

• Different countries have varying minimum population thresholds for settlements to be considered urban. For example, in Colombia, the threshold is 1,500 people, while in Argentina and Portugal it is 2,000. 
• In the United States and Thailand, it is 2,500, in India it is 5,000, and in Japan it is 30,000. Meanwhile, in Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, any settlement with a population of 250 people or more is classified as urban.

Occupational Structure

• Italy considers a settlement to be urban if over 50% of its working population is employed in non-agricultural activities, while in India this threshold is set at 75%.

Administration

• India designates a settlement as urban if it has a municipality, Cantonment Board, or Notified Area Council, regardless of its size. In Latin American countries like Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative center is classified as urban, regardless of the number of people living there.

Location

• When considering the location of urban centers, their intended purpose is an important factor. The requirements for siting a holiday resort, for instance, are very different from those for an industrial town, a military base, or a seaport. Towns with strategic importance may need natural defenses, while mining towns require proximity to economically valuable minerals. 
• Industrial towns often require access to local energy or raw materials. Meanwhile, tourist centers require attractive scenery, access to beaches or springs with medicinal water, or historical sites. Ports, on the other hand, need to have a well-equipped harbor.

Functions of Urban Centres

• The earliest urban centers served as hubs for administration, trade, industry, defense, and religion.
• Nowadays, specialized towns carry out a variety of additional functions such as recreation, housing, transportation, mining, manufacturing, and most recently, activities related to information technology.
• Major urban areas have a more extensive range of functions.
• Urban areas are typically categorized into the following groups:

Administrative Towns

• Urban centers that serve as the headquarters of central governments' administrative offices, such as New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington D.C., and London, are referred to as administrative towns.
• Sub-national towns, such as Victoria in British Columbia, can also serve as administrative centers.

Trading and Commercial Towns

• Trading has been an important function of various urban areas such as agricultural market towns like Winnipeg and Kansas City, banking and financial centers like Frankfurt and Amsterdam, large inland centers like Manchester and St. Louis, and transportation hubs like Lahore, Baghdad, and Agra.

Cultural Towns

• Urban centers of significant religious importance, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri, and Varanasi, are classified as cultural towns.
• Urbanization refers to the rise in the proportion of a country's population residing in urban areas, which is mainly due to rural-to-urban migration.

Classification of Towns on the Basis of Forms

• The shape of an urban settlement, whether linear, square, star, or crescent, is determined by its cultural and historical background.

Addis Ababa (The New Flower)

• The entire city is situated on a hilly terrain, and the road layout is influenced by the local topography.
• Addis Ababa is a significant educational hub due to the presence of a multi-faculty university, a medical college, and several reputable schools.
• Bole airport is a recently constructed airport.

Canberra

• In 1912, American landscape architect Walter Burley Griffin designed Canberra to be the capital of Australia.
• Over the past few decades, the city has undergone expansion to include numerous satellite towns, each with its own central district.
• Canberra boasts of extensive open areas, numerous parks, and gardens.

Types of Urban Settlements

• The categorization of urban centers into town, city, million city, conurbation, and megalopolis is based on their size, range of services offered, and functions performed.

Town

• While there may be some ambiguity in distinguishing between the functions of towns and villages, towns typically offer specific services such as manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services.

City

• A city can be viewed as a dominant town that has surpassed its neighboring towns or cities within the region.
• Cities are significantly larger than towns and offer a wider range of economic activities. Additionally, they commonly feature transportation hubs, major financial institutions, and administrative offices serving the region.

Conurbation

• Patrick Geddes introduced the term "conurbation" in 1915 to describe the extensive urban development resulting from the amalgamation of formerly distinct towns or cities.
• Cities such as Greater London, Manchester, Chicago, and Tokyo serve as examples of conurbations.

Million City

• When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.
• London, New York and Paris are examples.

Megalopolis

• Jean Gottman popularized the term "megalopolis" in 1957, which derives from a Greek word meaning "great city" and refers to a vast, interconnected region comprised of multiple conurbations.
• The area between Boston in the north and Washington in the south of the United States is a well-known example of a megalopolis.

Distribution of Mega Cities

• A mega city or megalopolis is a general term for cities together with their suburbs with a population of more than 10 million people.
• New York was the first to attain the status of a mega city by 1950 with a total population of about 12.5 million. The number of mega cities is now 31.

Problems of Human Settlements in Developing Countries

• In developing countries, urban areas face a range of challenges, including unsustainable population density, congested housing and streets, and inadequate access to clean drinking water.
• Additionally, these cities often lack basic infrastructure, such as reliable electricity, proper sewage disposal, and essential health and education services.

Problems of Urban Settlements

• Many cities in developing countries suffer from issues arising from a lack of planning.
• Some common characteristics of urban areas in these countries include a shortage of housing, vertical expansion, and the growth of slums. Furthermore, an ever-growing percentage of the population lives in substandard housing, such as slums and squatter settlements.

Economic Problems

• The factors that compel individuals to leave rural areas and migrate to urban centers create a surplus of unskilled and skilled labor in already overpopulated cities. This, in turn, exacerbates issues such as unemployment and unfavorable economic conditions.

Socio-cultural Problems

• A lack of financial resources hinders the creation of adequate social infrastructure to meet the basic needs of the vast population in developing countries.
• The urban poor often lack access to educational and healthcare facilities due to financial barriers.
• Health concerns are also prevalent in urban areas of developing countries.
• High crime rates are often a result of insufficient employment and educational opportunities.
• Male-dominated migration to urban centers has distorted the sex ratio in these cities.

Environmental Problems

• The large urban population in developing countries not only consumes a substantial amount of water, but also produces a significant volume of waste.
• Lack of access to potable water and water for domestic and industrial purposes is a common issue.
• Improper sewage systems contribute to unhygienic living conditions.
• The use of traditional fuels results in severe pollution.
• Industrial effluents and the dumping of domestic and industrial waste pose environmental hazards.
• The abundance of concrete structures in cities can create "heat islands."
• The connection between urban and rural areas is critical for the sustainability of human settlements.
• Rapid rural-to-urban migration, driven by a lack of employment and economic opportunities in rural areas, has placed immense strain on urban infrastructure and services, particularly in developing countries.
• It is crucial to address rural poverty, improve living conditions, and create employment and educational opportunities in rural areas.

Healthy City

The World Health Organization (WHO) has established criteria for a "healthy city," which includes the following:

• A clean and safe environment.
• Meeting the basic needs of all residents.
• Engaging the community in local government.
• Providing easily accessible health services.

Urban Strategy

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has identified the following priorities for an "urban strategy":

• Increasing access to shelter for the urban poor.
• Providing basic urban services, such as education, primary health care, clean water, and sanitation.
• Improving women's access to basic services and government facilities.
• Upgrading energy use and implementing alternative transport systems.
• Reducing air pollution.