Issues & Solutions to Problems of Urban Areas | Geography for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Problems within urban areas

• There are numerous challenges present in urban areas, some being specific to certain zones while others are more widespread.
• The central business district (CBD) faces unique issues like limited space for expansion, expensive land costs, and compliance with rigorous planning regulations and government directives.
• Problems such as congestion and pollution are predominantly concentrated in the CBD but are also prevalent across urban regions.
• Other notable issues encompass pollution, inequality, housing shortages, traffic congestion, crime rates, and alterations in land usage.

Congestion

• Traffic congestion can cause delays, resulting in people arriving late to their destinations.
• It leads to higher fuel consumption and contributes to the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
• Congestion adversely affects people's health due to stress and the inhalation of poor-quality air, with diesel fumes being identified as carcinogenic.

Pollution

Pollution can be divided into air, noise, light, visual and water

Air Pollution

• Roughly half of the global urban population grapples with substandard air quality.
• Every year, thousands of individuals succumb to health conditions linked to air pollution, such as asthma and lung cancer.
• The surge in industrial expansion and population growth has led to a proliferation of vehicles, escalating the demand for energy and heating. In less economically developed countries (LEDCs), rapid urbanization exacerbates pollution levels.
• Limited resources in many LEDCs hinder their ability to address this issue. India, for instance, harbors some of the most polluted cities globally, with causes including indoor fuelwood combustion, paraffin usage for cooking and heating, inadequate government pollution regulations, and the use of inferior-quality coal. Additionally, the burning of waste and plastics compounds the problem.
• More economically developed countries (MEDCs) have undergone de-industrialization and possess the economic, political, and technological means to combat air pollution.
• Car emissions stand as a significant source of air pollution, yet many LEDCs lack fuel-efficient and modern vehicle fleets. Furthermore, congested and poorly planned road networks contribute not only to traffic congestion but also to air and noise pollution.

Noise Pollution

• Noise pollution can stem from various sources such as road traffic, human activities, music, weather, road surfaces, barriers, doors, and shutters.
• Specifically, noise pollution is a result of road traffic, people, music, weather conditions, road surfaces, barriers, doors, and shutters.
• Common sources contributing to noise pollution include road traffic, people, music, weather, road surfaces, barriers, doors, and shutters.
• Effects of noise pollution encompass mental stress, anger issues, sleep disturbances, hypertension, and heart diseases.

Light Pollution

• Light pollution is prevalent in areas with human settlements, arising from sources like street lighting, residential areas, commercial establishments, factories, and offices.
• The allure of 'bright city lights' is often discussed as a factor attracting individuals to urban areas.
• Consequences of light pollution include headaches, sleep disruptions, disturbances to nocturnal animals, energy wastage, and the visibility of cities from space due to excessive lighting.

Visual

Visual aspects refer to the appearance of an area that can be displeasing to different individuals. This may include:

• Run-down, abandoned buildings, streets, or neighborhoods
• Graffiti and tagging
• New architecture or roadways

Water Pollution

Water pollution results in various illnesses like diarrhea and dysentery, which can be fatal. This pollution is widespread due to the dumping of pollutants into rivers from different sources:

• Industrial discharge
• Vehicles
• Residential/commercial wastewater
• Rubbish
• Chemicals and other toxic wastes
• Polluted stormwater and runoff from urban landscapes

Inequality

Environmental pollution emanates from various sources, contributing to the degradation of our ecosystems and health risks. Let's delve into the key origins:

• Industrial discharge: Factories and manufacturing plants release harmful substances into the air and water, such as heavy metals and chemicals.
• Vehicles: Exhaust emissions from cars and trucks pollute the air with gases like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
• Residential/commercial wastewater: Improper disposal of sewage and wastewater from households and businesses can contaminate water bodies.
• Rubbish: Improper waste disposal, including plastics and non-biodegradable materials, leads to environmental littering and pollution.
• Chemicals and other toxic wastes: Hazardous substances like pesticides and industrial chemicals pose severe risks to ecosystems and human health.
• Polluted stormwater and runoff from urban landscapes: Rainwater carrying pollutants from streets and urban areas can contaminate rivers and oceans.

Urban Inequality

• All urban areas exhibit disparities in various aspects such as wealth distribution, housing accessibility, and employment opportunities.
• Those with higher financial means can reside in sought-after neighborhoods, while individuals with fewer resources often find themselves situated on the outskirts of the city, in peripheral regions, or in high-rise apartment complexes.
• In Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs), the influx of impoverished rural migrants exacerbates the shortage of affordable housing, creating a surge in demand.
• This housing deficit leads to the emergence of temporary or makeshift settlements, contributing to overcrowding and substandard living conditions, further intensifying the already congested peripheries of urban areas.
• A significant portion of the population struggles to secure formal, regulated employment, resulting in elevated levels of unemployment, underemployment, or engagement in unregulated informal work.
• The informal sector serves as the primary source of employment for many individuals in LEDCs.
• Even when employment opportunities in the form of new factories are available, they are often situated far from the residential areas of incoming migrants.
• Inequality persists concerning educational attainment, access to healthcare, and overall opportunities, as affluent families are better positioned to support their children throughout their educational journeys and beyond.
• Less affluent households often rely on their children contributing to the family income, leading to a dearth of general education and skills development.
• Literacy and numeracy rates are notably lower in LEDC nations compared to more economically developed regions.

Housing

• Housing costs are high compared to average wages, leading to families often sharing limited living spaces.
• Landlords exploit the situation by charging exorbitant rents and neglecting property maintenance, a practice known as being a "slum landlord."
• Poor transportation infrastructure makes inner-city housing the most sought after and expensive.
• In less economically developed countries (LEDCs), housing quality varies significantly, with many lacking sufficient space, running water, or sanitation facilities.
• Inadequate waste disposal systems contribute to the spread of diseases in many communities.
• The lack of access to electricity forces people to resort to burning fuelwood, coal, or paraffin for energy needs.

Crime

• Crime tends to be concentrated in densely populated areas, where factors like congestion contribute to criminal activities.
• The prevalence of crime is often linked to a lack of employment opportunities and widespread unemployment.
• Common criminal activities include drug and human trafficking, drug abuse, various forms of violence (domestic and social), rape, and robbery.
• In impoverished urban areas (slums), criminal activities are often controlled by gangs through intimidation tactics.
• Wealthier neighborhoods experience crimes like car theft, kidnapping, and property damage.

Urban Sprawl

• Urban sprawl is a widespread issue globally, characterized by the outward expansion of cities.
• It is particularly evident in regions with low-density suburbs featuring detached houses and spacious gardens.
• Key problems associated with urban sprawl include:
  • Increased emissions stemming from car dependence, as individuals have to commute longer distances, leading to heightened traffic congestion.
  • Time loss due to extended commuting, resulting in reduced productivity.
  • Erosion of rural lifestyles and the unique character of the countryside.
  • Elevated costs for public transportation and social amenities, stretching local government budgets thin and impacting services like healthcare, fire departments, and policing.

Impact of Urban Sprawl

Environmental Consequences:

• Increased carbon emissions contribute to global warming and air pollution.
• Loss of green spaces and natural habitats due to extensive land development.

Social Effects:

• Isolation and reduced sense of community in sprawling suburban areas.
• Unequal access to services and amenities, disproportionately affecting marginalized populations.

Addressing Urban Sprawl

Implementing Smart Growth Strategies:

• Promoting mixed land use to reduce reliance on cars and encourage walking or biking.
• Fostering compact, walkable communities with access to public transportation.

Enforcing Zoning Regulations:

• Establishing zoning laws to control urban expansion and preserve green spaces.
• Promoting infill development to utilize existing urban infrastructure efficiently.

Land-use change

• Urban expansion entails development on land, which is limited within urban centers.
• This scarcity of land makes the open areas surrounding the urban periphery appealing for various purposes like housing, industry, commerce, leisure activities, healthcare facilities, and essential public utilities such as recycling centers, reservoirs, and sewage systems.
• Despite concerns about excessive countryside loss due to the outward expansion of urban areas, there remains a necessity for urban growth.
• This presents two options: constructing on either a greenfield or brownfield site.
• Each type of site has its proponents and detractors, with arguments for and against their respective land uses.

Brownfields Vs Greenfields

Some Solutions to Urban Challenges

• Sustainability entails managing social, economic, and environmental factors to enhance people's quality of life.
• Historically, city planners overlooked the long-term impacts of growth on the health and stability of their urban areas.
• Any efforts in inner-city revitalization or development on the urban fringe must prioritize sustainable urban living.
• The challenge lies in towns and cities reducing their ecological footprint while addressing social inequalities.
• Urban regions can undertake various activities, such as:
  • Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.
  • Incorporating energy-efficient products in public buildings, residences, offices, and stores.
  • Encouraging the use of public transportation to minimize pollution.
  • Establishing green spaces for community recreation.
  • Implementing water recycling practices for conservation.
  • Preserving cultural/historical landmarks and environmental sites for future generations.
  • Minimizing greenfield site usage and favoring brownfield sites.
  • Engaging local communities and offering diverse employment opportunities.
• Many businesses are adopting corporate sustainability measures to reduce their carbon footprint by:
  • Decreasing packaging materials.
  • Utilizing recyclable packaging.
  • Engaging in local trade.
  • Implementing renewable energy sources and low-energy devices.
• Cities must also maintain economic sustainability to avoid bankruptcy. For instance, Detroit, Michigan, declared bankruptcy in 2013 due to declining population, increasing unemployment, and reduced tax revenue.
• Urban environmental sustainability encompasses various aspects, including food, energy, waste management, green spaces, and transportation infrastructure. Cities can enhance sustainability by:
  • Investing in efficient and safe public transportation systems.
  • Promoting cycling through infrastructure improvements.
  • Encouraging car-sharing to alleviate congestion and enhance air quality.
  • Implementing Park and Ride systems to reduce city center traffic.
  • Enforcing congestion charges to deter car usage in urban centers. For instance, London's congestion charge reduced pollution levels by approximately 25% and prevented 13,500 cars from entering the city center daily.
• Ecotown developments are another sustainable approach designed to minimize environmental impact and foster community cohesion. These developments feature homes equipped with energy-saving measures like triple-glazed windows, solar panels, and low-energy appliances. Additionally, they prioritize green spaces to preserve and enhance wildlife habitats.

Case Study: Seoul, South Korea

• Seoul has served as the capital of South Korea for more than six centuries.
• It stands as a bustling global metropolis housing 10 million residents, making it one of the most densely populated urban areas globally. Spanning 605 square kilometers, Seoul accommodates approximately 16,000 individuals per square kilometer, surpassing even Tokyo in population density.
• Within the Greater Seoul Metropolitan Area, which includes key cities like Gwangju and Incheon, the population ranges between 26 million to 36 million inhabitants.
• Remarkably, over the past five decades, Seoul has undergone rapid development, witnessing a staggering 400-fold increase in GDP per capita, soaring from $84 to $34,000 in 2021.
• Surrounded by picturesque mountains, Seoul is traversed by the majestic Hangang River, enhancing its natural charm and appeal.

Map of South Korea

• Seoul's mountainous terrain limits available land for development to less than 45%.
• The city has experienced rapid growth, resulting in various side-effects:

• Housing Shortage

  • Housing shortage in Seoul is primarily due to in-migration and changes in family dynamics, such as having two generations instead of three living in one house.
  • To address the shortage, many apartment blocks have been constructed in the poorer areas north of the river. However, this solution has led to the destruction of communities within these block apartments.
  • Satellite towns have also been established south of the river to cater to wealthier citizens, but this has further deepened social divisions.
  • The uniform development of office and apartment blocks has damaged the natural landscape of the city and has also impacted its historical and cultural resources that have defined Seoul for over two millennia.
  • Congestion and Pollution
    • Despite improvements to the traffic network in Seoul, congestion and pollution remain significant issues.
    • The number of cars has increased, putting pressure on the older, narrower central roads that struggle to handle the high volume of traffic.
    • Water pollution, caused by sewage and chemicals, led to the covering of the Cheong Gye Cheon River with an elevated road. This resulted in air pollution and congestion. However, the road was later demolished, and the river was restored, rejuvenating the waterway and providing an open green space for both residents and visitors.
    • Inequality
      • Seoul faces challenges related to inequality, including youth unemployment and an aging population, leading to a widening gap between the rich and the poor.
      • The southern part of the city, known for its high-tech industries, boasts good schools, accessibility, and high-income residents.
      • On the other hand, the northern and western areas of the city, characterized by traditional manufacturing, are home to poorer communities.
      • The urban sprawl in Seoul is exacerbated by developments at the city's fringes, with new town developments located up to 45 kilometers from central Seoul, such as Dongtan New Town, approximately an hour south of Seoul.