Land-Based Empires | AP World History - Grade 9 PDF Download

Europe's Dominance After 300 Years of Development

• Europe emerged as the leading global power after centuries of progress.

Revolutions in European Thought and Expression

• In the 1300s, Europe, which had been predominantly Christian for a millennium, witnessed significant changes.
• Countries started to unify and establish connections, leading to an expansion of Europe's perspectives.
• This period saw the emergence of four notable cultural movements.

Europe's Christian Legacy in the 1300s

• During the 1300s, Europe's religious landscape was primarily dominated by Christianity.

Expansion of Worldview and Cultural Movements

• As European nations began to unite and interact, their worldview broadened.
• This interaction with diverse historical perspectives led to the exploration of Europe's past.
• Four distinct cultural movements unfolded during this time, shaping European thought and expression.

The Renaissance

• With the rise in trade, urban migration increased, leading to a surge in wealth allocation towards the study of history.
• The philosophy of Humanism emerged, emphasizing personal achievements, happiness, and life on earth over salvation goals, although the concept of the afterlife retained its importance within the Catholic Church.
• Art experienced a revival as prosperity grew, enabling individuals like the Medici family to become patrons of renowned artists such as Michelangelo and Brunelleschi.
• Artists of the era, including Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello, shifted their focus towards realism in their works.
• In the mid-1400s, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press revolutionized the accessibility of books, making them more affordable and widespread, consequently fostering a more literate society.

Artistic Renaissance

• During the Renaissance period, arts experienced a revival.
• Art became more affordable for the general population.
• Patronage from influential families like the Medicis supported artists such as Michelangelo and Brunelleschi.
• Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello emphasized realism in their works.

Key Points:

• Art accessibility increased due to the support of patrons like the Medici family.
• Artists shifted focus towards realism, evident in works by Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello.

Impact of Printing Press

• In the mid-1400s, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press revolutionized the dissemination of information.
• Books became easier to produce, more affordable, and accessible to a wider audience.
• This innovation led to a rise in literacy rates as more people gained access to written material.

Key Points:

• Johannes Gutenberg's printing press made book production more efficient and cost-effective.
• The accessibility of books increased literacy rates among the population.

Johannes Gutenberg and the Impact of the Printing Press

• The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the spread of knowledge.
• Before the printing press, books were painstakingly copied by hand, limiting access to information.
• Gutenberg's innovation made it possible to produce books more quickly and in greater quantities.
• This led to a significant increase in literacy rates as more people gained access to printed materials.

The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a transformative movement in European history that had profound religious, cultural, and social impacts.

Causes of the Protestant Reformation

• Discontent with the corruption and extravagance of the Catholic Church.
• Desire for a more personal and direct relationship with God.
• Advancements in education and the spread of new ideas due to the printing press.

Key Figures of the Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther: A German monk who famously nailed the 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church, sparking the Reformation.
• John Calvin: A French theologian who played a significant role in the development of Protestantism.

Impacts of the Protestant Reformation

• Division within Christianity, leading to the formation of various Protestant denominations.
• Challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church and the rise of individual interpretation of the Bible.
• Encouragement of literacy and education as the Bible was translated into vernacular languages.
• Social and political upheavals across Europe as rulers and citizens aligned with different religious factions.

The Influence of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages

• The Catholic Church wielded immense power in medieval society, holding sway over both politics and social structures.
• It maintained undisputed authority, shaping the beliefs and practices of the people.
• The Church leveraged its extensive following by offering indulgences, which were certificates sold to reduce one's time in purgatory.
• This practice led to increasing dissatisfaction among nobles and peasants who recognized the exploitative and corrupt nature of the Church.

Impact of Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther, a German monk, challenged the Church's teachings by asserting that salvation came directly from God, not through intermediaries like the Church.
• His actions sparked the Protestant Reformation, prompting a schism within Christianity.
• Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther for his dissenting views, deepening the rift between Lutherans and the Catholic Church.

The Rise of Calvinism and the Anglican Church

• John Calvin's doctrine of predestination, which posited that only a select few were predetermined for salvation, gained prominence in regions like Scotland and France.
• King Henry VIII's dispute with the Pope over his marriage to Catherine of Aragon led to the establishment of the Church of England, with the monarch at its head.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

• In response to internal and external criticisms, the Catholic Church initiated the Catholic Reformation in the 16th century.
• The Council of Trent reaffirmed papal authority, condemned heresy, and reinstated Latin as the primary language of worship.
• These efforts aimed to address controversies and bolster the Church's credibility, albeit leading to conflicts and wars in the process.

Christianity Split and Reformation Movements

• Christianity division - Luther's propositions inspired a wave of reformers
• Lutherans:
  • Luther's adherents - broke away from the Catholic Church
• Calvinism:
  • Founded by John Calvin, emphasizing predestination - belief that only a select few are destined for salvation by God
  • Exerted significant influence in Scotland and France
• King Henry VIII and the Anglican Church:
  • Henry VIII declared himself head of religious matters after the Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon due to the lack of a male heir
  • Established the Church of England (Anglican Church)
• Jesuits:
  • Founded by Ignatius Loyola, emphasized salvation through prayer and good deeds

Catholic Church History Summary

• When King Henry VIII's request for an annulment was denied by the Pope due to the lack of a male heir, Henry declared himself the supreme head of religious affairs, leading to the establishment of the Church of England/Anglican Church.
• The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola, emphasized that salvation is attained through prayer and good deeds.
• In the 16th century, the Catholic Reformation was a response to internal controversies within the Catholic Church. It aimed to address these issues, restore credibility, and maintain authority and control. The Council of Trent played a crucial role by reaffirming papal authority, punishing heretics, and reinstating Latin as the exclusive language for worship. Unfortunately, these actions also contributed to conflicts and wars.
• The Catholic Church's efforts during the Catholic Reformation focused on resolving internal disputes while striving to uphold its power and influence.

Council of Trent

• The Council of Trent reinstated the authority of the pope, punished heretics, and made Latin the exclusive language in worship.
• It led to conflicts and wars in response to its decisions.

Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution brought about a significant increase in education, leading to discoveries worldwide.
• Copernican Revolution: Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the Earth and other celestial bodies revolve around the sun, with the Earth rotating on its axis.
• Galileo Galilei further developed Copernicus's theories through his observations, which led to conflicts with the Catholic Church.
• The Scientific Method emerged as a new approach, emphasizing theory, documentation, repetition, and experimentation as the pillars of scientific inquiry.
• Notable figures like Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, and Sir Isaac Newton made significant contributions during this period.
• The Scientific Revolution paved the way for the Industrial Revolution and prompted many to challenge traditional religious beliefs, leading to the rise of atheism and deism.
• Deism gained popularity in the 18th century, advocating the belief that God created the world but does not intervene in its operations.

Copernican Revolution

• Galileo built upon Copernicus's theories and provided evidence to support them. However, he faced opposition from the Catholic Church and was compelled to retract his findings, eventually enduring house arrest.

Galileo

• A significant shift occurred from relying on reasoning as the primary method for scientific discovery to embracing the scientific method. This approach involves formulating theories, documenting observations, repeating experiments, and encouraging others to replicate the results.

Scientific Method

• The development of the scientific method involved contributions from notable figures such as Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, and Sir Isaac Newton. These individuals played critical roles in shaping modern scientific inquiry.

Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton

• The advancements in scientific understanding catalyzed by these figures not only fueled the Industrial Revolution but also led to widespread skepticism towards religious institutions. This skepticism gave rise to various ideologies, including atheism, which denies the existence of any deity, and deism, which posits a passive creator.
• Deism gained popularity in the 1700s, advocating the belief that a divine being initiated the creation of the universe but does not actively intervene in its operations.

Deism

European Rivals

• The emergence of European rivals marked a significant period in intellectual history, characterized by scientific progress and philosophical divergence.

Summary of Spain and Portugal History

Spain and Portugal played significant roles in history with their explorations and expansions.

Spain and Portugal

Spain and Portugal were powerful nations that influenced exploration and culture.

• Spain, under Charles V, controlled parts of Europe and the Americas, fostering exploration and language expansion.
• Philip, Charles's son, continued the Spanish Inquisition but faced challenges such as the Dutch Revolt.
• Portugal focused on dominating regions like coastal Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Spice Islands.

Spain's Influence

• Spain, under Charles V, expanded its control over various regions, promoting exploration and culture.
• Charles's son, Philip, faced economic challenges and conflicts with other European powers.

Portugal's Expansion

• Portugal aimed to dominate coastal Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Spice Islands, but faced competition from the Dutch and British.

Conclusion

In summary, Spain and Portugal's histories are marked by power struggles, exploration, and cultural influences that shaped the course of world events.

Spain

• During the reign of Charles V, Spain extended its control over regions including parts of France, the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, and territories in America.
• Under the rule of Charles V's son, Philip, the Spanish Inquisition persisted in its efforts to eliminate heretics. This period also saw Dutch Protestants rebelling against Spanish rule, leading to the formation of an independent Netherlands. Spain faced significant financial losses in the mid-17th century and was on the brink of defeat by England and France.

Portugal

• Portugal's focus was on asserting dominance over coastal regions in Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Spice Islands. However, Portuguese control eventually waned, falling into the hands of the Dutch and British.

England

England, a rising power in this period, made significant strides both domestically and on the international stage.

England's Domestic Affairs:

• England experienced a period of political stability under the Tudor monarchs, which enabled the country to prosper economically and culturally.
• The Elizabethan era, characterized by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, saw a flourishing of arts, literature, and exploration.

England's International Expansion:

• English explorers like Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh played pivotal roles in expanding England's influence across the globe through voyages to the New World.
• The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked a significant victory for England, solidifying its naval supremacy and paving the way for further colonial expansion.

History of English Monarchy

• Henry VIII's quest for a male heir was unsuccessful, leading to his daughter Elizabeth I becoming Queen.
• Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): This period marked a time of expansion, exploration, and colonization in the New World, often referred to as the golden age.
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  • Muscovy Company was established as the first joint-stock company during this era, alongside the British East India Company.
• James I took over the throne from Elizabeth in 1607, attempting to unify England and Scotland under one rule. However, his efforts to accommodate Catholics and Puritans were largely unsuccessful.
• Charles I succeeded James in 1625. Despite signing the Petition of Rights, which aimed to restrict taxes and prevent unlawful imprisonment, he disregarded its provisions for over a decade.
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  • Resentment towards Charles I led to the Scottish invasion of England in 1640, prompting the convening of the Long Parliament. This parliamentary session, lasting for two decades, curtailed the powers of the monarchy.
  • Parliament eventually raised an army under Oliver Cromwell to confront the King. Following a series of conflicts, Charles I was defeated, executed, and the English Commonwealth was established, with Oliver Cromwell assuming the role of the first Lord Protector.
• Charles II, the exiled son of Charles I, was invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne under the condition of a limited monarchy after Cromwell's death, known as the Stuart Restoration. During this time, the Habeas Corpus Act was agreed upon to safeguard against arbitrary arrests.
• James II succeeded Charles II but faced significant opposition due to fears of his Catholic leanings. He was ultimately removed from power during the Glorious Revolution, succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William, who signed the English Bill of Rights in 1689.

Charles I

• Scottish invaded England out of resentment for Charles in 1640 - This led to the convening of the Long Parliament that lasted for 20 years. The Long Parliament significantly restricted the powers of the monarchy.

Long Parliament

• Parliament raised an army, led by Oliver Cromwell, to confront the King after his attempt to arrest Parliament.

Oliver Cromwell

• Parliament defeated the king and subsequently executed him, marking the beginning of the English Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell assumed the role of the first Lord Protector.
• Oliver Cromwell displayed intolerance towards certain religious groups, particularly Catholics and the Irish, and his actions were met with strong resentment.

Oliver Cromwell

• Oliver Cromwell was a significant figure in English history.
• Charles II was the exiled son of Charles I who was invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell's death, known as the Stuart Restoration.
• During his reign, Charles II agreed to the Habeas Corpus Act, which aimed to prevent people from being arrested without due process.

Charles II

• Charles II, part of the Stuart dynasty, restored the monarchy after a period of exile.
• Under his rule, the Habeas Corpus Act was agreed upon to protect individuals from arbitrary arrests without proper legal procedures.

James II

• James II succeeded Charles II but faced significant opposition due to fears of him turning England into a Catholic country.
• He was eventually driven from power during the Glorious Revolution led by Parliament.

Succession after James II

• Following James II, his daughter Mary and her husband William took the throne.
• They signed the English Bill of Rights in 1689, which established important principles for governance in England.

French Influence

France played a significant role in European politics during this period.

French Monarchy Under Bourbon Dynasty

• Following the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), France transitioned into a unified and centralized state under a powerful monarchy.
• Primarily Catholic, France witnessed the emergence of French Protestants known as Huguenots, leading to internal conflicts.

Huguenots and Religious Tolerance

• Henry IV, the first Bourbon king, introduced the Edict of Nantes in 1598, fostering an environment of religious tolerance in France.
• This edict aimed to pacify tensions between Catholics and Protestants, setting a precedent for coexistence.

Cardinal Richelieu and Administrative Reforms

• Cardinal Richelieu, a key advisor to the Bourbons, opted for compromise over conflict with Protestants.
• He established the bureaucratic noblesse de la robe, which was later continued by Cardinal Mazarin.

Reign of Louis XIV

• Louis XIV, who ruled from 1642 to 1715, exhibited a self-important and grandiose demeanor, centralizing power.
• Under his reign, France engaged in near-constant warfare to expand its empire, notably in the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714).

Louis XIV

• The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) occurred when Louis XIV's grandson was set to inherit the Spanish throne. To prevent the unification of France and Spain, England, the Holy Roman Empire, and German princes formed an alliance.

War of Spanish Succession

• During the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714), the grandson of Louis XIV was in line to inherit the Spanish throne. A coalition comprising England, the Holy Roman Empire, and German princes was formed to prevent the merging of the French and Spanish thrones.

German Areas (Holy Roman Empire)

• In the German regions within the Holy Roman Empire, which encompassed present-day Austria and Germany, weaknesses stemmed from the diverse dynamics, governance challenges, and religious differences among the surrounding territories.
• Parts of Hungary were lost to the Ottoman Turks in the early 16th century, and the region was heavily affected by the devastating Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).
• By the 18th century, German states were becoming more influential.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

• The Peace of Augsburg aimed to resolve conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in the German states. It was a significant attempt to establish peace amidst religious divisions.

Thirty Years' War

• The Thirty Years' War commenced when Protestant forces in Bohemia challenged the Catholics, leading to a prolonged and destructive conflict.
• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) concluded the war, with German states affirming their commitment to maintaining peace.

Europe

• Hungary's territorial losses to the Ottoman Turks occurred in the early 16th century.
• The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) left Europe in devastation and chaos.
• By the 18th century, German states were progressively gaining influence and power.
• The Peace of Augsburg (1555) aimed to resolve conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.

Thirty Years' War

• The conflict originated when Protestant forces in Bohemia challenged the dominance of Catholics, resulting in a violent and destructive war.
• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) solidified the agreement among German states to maintain peace.

Russia

• Russia's political landscape underwent significant changes during this period.

Russian Leaders in the 15th to 18th Centuries

• Russian leaders in the late 15th century worked towards overthrowing the ruling Mongols, marking a significant shift in power dynamics.
• Moscow emerged as a focal point of Orthodox Christianity, highlighting its growing cultural and religious importance.
• Ivan III took a bold stand by refusing to pay tribute to the Mongols, asserting Russian independence. This move was later echoed by Ivan IV. They also incentivized peasants with freedom from their feudal lords, the boyars, if they reclaimed land independently.

Ivan III and Ivan IV

• Ivan III and Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible, were formidable leaders. They instilled fear by executing those perceived as threats to their authority.
• Both rulers championed the recruitment of peasants, offering them freedom from the control of their feudal lords if they undertook the initiative to conquer and cultivate their own land.

The Time of Troubles (1604-1613)

• Following Ivan IV's death without a direct heir, a power struggle ensued, leading to a tumultuous period known as the Time of Troubles (1604-1613).
• This era was characterized by violent attempts to claim the throne, resulting in widespread bloodshed and instability.

Romanov Dynasty and Westernization

• After the Time of Troubles, the Romanovs ascended to power through the election by feudal lords, maintaining authority until 1917.
• Peter the Great, ruling from 1682 to 1725, undertook extensive reforms to modernize Russia, aligning it more closely with Western European practices and culture.
• Catherine the Great, reigning from 1762 to 1796, prioritized education and Western influences, though she neglected the dire conditions of the serfs under her rule.

Time of Troubles

• During the Time of Troubles, Michael Romanov ascended to power through the election by feudal lords, a practice that lasted until 1917. The Romanov dynasty, known for its ruthless rule, consolidated authority during this period.

Michael Romanov

• Peter the Great, who reigned from 1682 to 1725, undertook significant reforms in Russia, transforming the country into a westernized state.
• Catherine the Great, ruling from 1762 to 1796, prioritized education and Western cultural influences. She disregarded the plight of the serfs, focusing on the advancement of her nation.

Islamic Gunpowder Empires

• The Islamic Gunpowder Empires were a group of powerful Muslim empires that utilized gunpowder technology to expand their territories and influence during the early modern period.
• These empires included the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, each known for their military prowess and cultural achievements.

Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire, based in present-day Turkey, was a dominant force in the Islamic world. It reached its zenith under rulers like Suleiman the Magnificent and was renowned for its administrative efficiency and architectural achievements.
• One example of Ottoman cultural influence is seen in the intricate designs of the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, showcasing the empire's artistic sophistication.

Safavid Empire

• The Safavid Empire, centered in Persia (modern-day Iran), flourished under Shah Abbas the Great. He revitalized the empire through military reforms and cultural patronage, fostering the development of Persian arts and architecture.
• An illustration of Safavid artistic brilliance is evident in the intricate tile work of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan, reflecting the empire's rich cultural heritage.

Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire, which spanned much of the Indian subcontinent, saw its golden age under rulers like Akbar the Great. Known for religious tolerance and administrative innovations, the empire blended Persian, Indian, and Islamic influences.
• The architectural marvel of the Taj Mahal in Agra exemplifies the Mughal Empire's fusion of Islamic and Indian architectural styles, symbolizing love and beauty in its intricate design.

• Ottoman Empire Overview

  • The Ottoman Empire was established before 1450 by Osman Bey following the decline of the Mongol Empire.
  • In 1453, the Ottomans captured Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.
  • Spanning territories from Greece to Persia and around the Mediterranean into Egypt and northern Africa, the Ottomans consolidated their rule.
  • They granted land known as "timars" to Ottoman aristocrats for control.
  • Implemented the practice of devshirme, which involved enslaving Christian children and training them as Janissaries, elite warriors of the empire.

• Ottoman Empire Expansion

  • Selim I ascended to power in 1512 and significantly expanded the empire's territories.
  • He elevated Istanbul as the center of Islamic civilization.
  • Suleiman I succeeded Selim I in 1520 and oversaw a flourishing period for the Ottoman military and arts.
  • During the golden age from 1520 to 1566, the Ottomans conquered parts of Hungary but faced challenges in capturing Vienna.

• Mughal Empire Rise

  • Babur, a Mongol leader, invaded northern India in 1526, establishing the Mughal Empire which dominated the region for the next 300 years.
  • Akbar, who succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605, further unified India with a policy of religious tolerance.
  • He granted power to tax to Muslim landowners known as "zamindars," fostering coexistence between Hindus and Muslims.
  • Under Akbar's rule, India experienced a golden age of art and intellectual thought, exemplified by the construction of the Taj Mahal during Shah Jahan's reign.
  • Aurangzeb, who followed Akbar, ceased religious tolerance and engaged in wars to expand control over the rest of India, leading to the persecution of Hindus.

• European Arrival and British Imperialism

  • In the early 17th century, Europeans arrived in India for trade and cultural exchange.
  • After 1750, Britain emerged as a dominant imperial power, reshaping Indian geopolitics and society.

The Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, leading to the end of the Byzantine Empire and the renaming of the city to Istanbul.
• The Ottomans, who were Islamic, expanded their rule from Greece to Persia, encompassing regions around the Mediterranean, Egypt, and northern Africa. They achieved this by granting land known as "timars" to Ottoman aristocrats for control.
• They implemented a system called devshirme, where Christian children were enslaved and transformed into elite warriors known as Janissaries.
• Selim I ascended to power in 1512 and played a significant role in the empire's expansion, establishing Istanbul as the heart of Islamic civilization.
• Suleiman I, who succeeded Selim I in 1520, enhanced the Ottoman military and arts during his reign, which is often referred to as the golden age spanning from 1520 to 1566.

Mughal Empire in India

• Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526, establishing the Mughal Empire which dominated the region for the next 300 years.
• Akbar: Succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605, further uniting India with religious toleration. Akbar granted power to tax to Muslim landowners (zamindars), fostering a golden age of art and thought where Hindus and Muslims coexisted peacefully. During Shah Jahan's reign, the iconic Taj Mahal was constructed.
• Aurangzeb: Following Akbar, Aurangzeb became emperor, ending religious toleration and initiating wars to expand Mughal territory. His reign saw the persecution of Hindus.
• European Arrival: Europeans arrived in the early 17th century for trade and cultural exchange. By 1750, Britain emerged as a dominant imperial power.
• United entire subcontinent
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  • Akbar: Akbar followed Babur as ruler from 1556 to 1605. He further unified India by promoting religious tolerance and granting power to Muslim landowners known as zamindars to collect taxes.
  • Hindus and Muslims coexisted harmoniously, fostering a golden age of art and intellectual thought. Notably, under Shah Jahan's reign, the iconic Taj Mahal was constructed.
  • Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb, an emperor who succeeded Shah Jahan, reversed the policy of religious tolerance and embarked on military campaigns to expand his empire. This led to the persecution of Hindus.
  • European Arrival: In the early 17th century, European powers arrived in India for trade and cultural exchange. By 1750, Britain emerged as a dominant imperial force in the region.
• Africa

In this period of Indian history, notable rulers shaped the subcontinent and its interactions with the world:- United entire subcontinent: - Akbar: Akbar's reign from 1556 to 1605 was marked by his efforts to unify India through religious tolerance and empowering Muslim landowners (zamindars) to levy taxes. This period saw a flourishing of art and culture, exemplified by the construction of the Taj Mahal during Shah Jahan's rule. - Aurangzeb: Following Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb's rule saw a shift towards religious intolerance and military conquests, leading to the persecution of Hindus. - European Arrival: European powers arrived in India in the early 17th century for trade and cultural exchange. By 1750, Britain's influence in the region grew significantly, marking the country's ascent as an imperial power.

Overview of Powerful Kingdoms in Africa

• Commencing in the 10th century, significant wealth amassed from trade led to the emergence of powerful kingdoms such as Songhai, Kongo, and Angola.

Songhai Kingdom

• Songhai evolved into an Islamic state with Sunni Ali reigning as a notable ruler from 1464 to 1493.
• Sunni Ali bolstered the kingdom through a formidable navy, efficient central administration, and substantial financing of Timbuktu.
• Ultimately, Songhai succumbed to Moroccan forces.

Asanti Empire

• Arising in 1670, the Asanti Empire skillfully evaded invasions and actively expanded its territorial domain.

Kongo Kingdom

• Under the reign of King Alfonso I, Kongo witnessed a transition to Catholicism, with the monarch converting his subjects.
• Regrettably, the kingdom faced devastation at the hands of former allies, particularly Portugal.

Angola

• Established by the Portuguese circa 1575 primarily for the slave trade, Angola encountered fierce resistance from Queen Nzinga, who thwarted Portuguese endeavors to extend their dominance for four decades.

Angola

• Portuguese established Angola around 1575 primarily for the slave trade.
• Queen Nzinga fiercely resisted Portuguese efforts to expand their dominance for four decades.

Queen Nzinga

Challenges Faced by Queen Nzinga

• Queen Nzinga, a prominent figure, faced numerous challenges during her reign.
• She skillfully navigated political turmoil and resisted Portuguese colonial advances.

Isolated Asia

China

• The Ming Dynasty regained power in 1368 after expelling the Mongols, maintaining authority until 1644.
• Under the Ming Dynasty, China witnessed significant naval expansion under the command of Zheng He in the early 15th century.
• However, economic instability arose due to silver currency inflation, famines in the 17th century, and peasant uprisings.
• The Qing Dynasty, led by non-Chinese rulers, governed China from 1644 to 1911, emphasizing legitimacy through cultural displays.

Chinese Dynasties Overview

• During the early 15th century, Zheng He, a renowned Chinese navigator, led vast fleets on expeditions to explore Asia and the Indian Ocean.
• The Chinese economy encountered challenges in the 17th century, including issues such as silver currency inflation, famines, and peasant uprisings.
• In 1644, Qing warriors were called upon to assist the Ming emperor but ended up overthrowing him instead.

Qing Dynasty

• The Qing, or Manchu, rulers governed China until 1911. As non-ethnically Chinese rulers, they needed to establish their legitimacy.
• Rulers like Kangxi, who reigned from 1661 to 1722, and Qianlong, who ruled from 1735 to 1796, expanded the empire's territories, including Taiwan, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Burma. Both rulers were well-versed in Confucian teachings.

Manchu Rule

• To legitimize their rule, the Manchus showcased imperial portraits alongside Chinese historical artifacts.

China

• Kangxi's Reign:
  • Kangxi ruled China from 1661 to 1722. During his reign, he expanded Chinese territory by conquering Taiwan, Mongolia, central Asia, and Tibet.
• Qianlong's Reign:
  • Qianlong ruled China from 1735 to 1796. He further expanded the empire by conquering Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal.
• Confucian Influence:
  • Both Kangxi and Qianlong were deeply influenced by Confucianism, a key philosophy in Chinese culture.
• Cultural Isolation:
  • The emperors maintained a policy of limited interaction with neighboring countries to safeguard and preserve Chinese culture.

Japan

• Shogunate Era:
  • In the 16th century, Japan was ruled by shoguns. However, this period saw the influence of Western Christian missionaries, particularly in Nagasaki.
• Tokugawa Shogunate:
  • Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa Shogunate during the Edo period from 1600 to 1868. This regime enforced a strict social hierarchy and moved the capital to Edo, known today as Tokyo.
  • National Seclusion Policy:
    • In 1635, Japan implemented a policy that restricted Japanese citizens from traveling abroad and limited foreign interactions.
  • Cultural Flourishing:
    • Despite isolation, Japanese culture thrived during this period. Art forms like Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry gained popularity.

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Tokugawa Ieyasu was a significant figure during the Edo period in Japan.

• Moved capital of Japan to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)
• National Seclusion Policy (1635): This policy banned Japanese from traveling abroad and restricted interactions with most foreigners.

Japanese Culture Development

During this period, Japanese culture flourished with the rise of Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry.

Resistance

There were instances of resistance during this era.

• Key Rebellions in 17th and 18th Centuries
  • Ana Nzinga's Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) - 1641-167
    • Ana Nzinga, a powerful queen of the kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba, led a fierce resistance against Portuguese colonizers from 1641 to 167.
    • Example: Ana Nzinga strategically allied with the Dutch against the Portuguese to maintain her kingdom's independence.
  • Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th Century
    • The Cossacks in modern-day Ukraine rebelled against the oppressive rule of the Russian Empire during the 17th and 18th centuries.
    • Example: The Cossacks utilized guerilla warfare tactics to resist Russian dominance in the region.
  • Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804
    • The Haitian slaves rose up against French colonial masters between 1791 and 1804, ultimately gaining independence for Haiti.
    • Example: Toussaint Louverture emerged as a key leader in the Haitian Revolution, guiding the enslaved population to freedom.
  • Maratha (India) - 1680-1707
    • The Marathas in India fiercely resisted the oppressive rule of the Mughal Empire during 1680-1707, establishing the powerful Maratha Empire.
    • Example: Shivaji Maharaj, a legendary Maratha warrior, challenged Mughal authority and laid the foundation for Maratha sovereignty.
  • Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th Century
    • Maroon communities in the Caribbean and Brazil defiantly resisted enslavement by European colonizers during the 17th and 18th centuries.
    • Example: The Jamaican Maroons, led by Queen Nanny, waged successful campaigns against British forces, securing autonomy in the mountains.
  • Metacom's War (US) - 1675-1678
    • Metacom's War, also known as King Philip's War, was a Native American uprising against British colonists from 1675 to 1678 due to unfair trade practices and land encroachments.
    • Example: Metacom, or King Philip, united various tribes in a coordinated effort to resist English expansion in New England.
  • Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680
    • The Pueblo Revolts of 1680 were indigenous uprisings in response to Spanish colonization and the exploitative encomienda system, albeit the victory was temporary.
    • Example: Popé, a Pueblo religious leader, orchestrated a successful rebellion that briefly drove the Spanish out of the region.

Historical Rebellions

• Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804

  Haitian individuals rebelled against France, ultimately gaining independence for Haiti.

• Maratha (India) - 1680-1707

  The Maratha people resisted the Mughal Empire and emerged victorious, establishing the Maratha Empire.

• Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century

  Maroon communities in the Caribbean and Brazil resisted slave-owners, successfully evading recapture and sale.

• Metacom's War (US) - 1675-1678

  Metacom's War was a resistance movement by Native Americans against British colonists due to unjust trade practices.