Mutation - Biology, Class 12 PDF Download

L37 : Mutations and Variations - Principles of Inheritance and Evolution, Biology, Class 12

Mutation :

•  Sudden heritable change in genetic material of an organism is called as Mutation.

•  Mutation are discontinuous source of variation.

•  Frequency of mutation at present is 1 × 10–6 (1 cell in : 1 million-cell). But it will increase in future due to pollution and destruction of ozone layer.

•  Mutation word was given by Hugo De Vries.

• De Vries studied mutations in the plant Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose). It is a hybrid plant.

•  De Vries gave (proposed) mutation theory of evolution.

•  This theory was given in support of Darwinism because Darwin was unable to explain the source of variations.

• Darwin called variation assport.

 According to De Vries there are two types of variations in evolutions.

1. Continuous variations : These variations are developed in every generation of an organism.

•  These variations are developed by crossing over/meiosis/ sexual reproduction.

•  Only minor variation are developed by crossing over.

2. Discontinuous variations : These variations are developed by mutations.

•  Suddenly appear in any generation.

•  Both minor and major type of variations are developed by mutations mostly major type.

3. Seth Right : Mutation was first observed by him.

•  He observed some short legged sheep (Ancon) variety in a population of long legged sheep.

•  It was an example of dominant germinal of mutation.

•  Those mutation are only heritable which occur in germinal cell of an organism. While somatic mutations are non heritable.

•  Somatic mutations are also heritable in vegetative propagated plants.

4. Morgan: Credit of discovery of mutation is given to him. He observed some white eyed male Drosophila in a population of red eyed Drosophila.

•  In Drosophila eye colour is a sex linked character. Gene of eye colour is located on X chromosome. Gene of red eye is dominant over the gene of white eye. So in Drosophila genotypes for eye colour are of following types :

Muller :-

* Discoverer of Induced Mutations.

* He induced mutations in Drosophila by the help of X-rays.

Mac Farlane Burnitt, Neil Jerne

* Induced mutations in B-lymphocytes of blood to obtain new antibodies.

Beadle and Tatum

* Induced mutations in Neurospora to study nutritional mutation by the help of U. V. rays. or X-rays.

•  Normal-Neurospora can be grown in minimal medium (which lacks some nutrients), because it can make all nutrients for it. This is known asPrototroph.

•  Mutant Neurospora doesn't has capability to grow in minimal medium because due to mutation it loses those genes which prepare some special nutrients for it. Eg. Vita.–B or Thiamine.

•  When Vit–B or Thiamine was given to mutant Neurospora then the growth of Neurospora was normal. This form is known as Auxotroph.

M.S. Swaminathan :

•  He induced mutations in wheat by the help of g-rays to obtain good varieties for eg. Sharbati Sonora

•  Swaminathan established g garden in IARI-New Delhi (Pusa Institute).

•  Largest Institute in the field of Agriculture in Asia.

Main Points :

•  Mostly mutations are harmful.

•  Sometimes they are lethal which leads to death of organisms.

•  But sometimes they are beneficial which are used to obtain good varieties of plants and animals. It is called as Mutation Breeding.

•  Mostly mutations are recessive and being recessive. They never eliminate from a population it is called as Hardy-weinberg law. Which is applicable to large population and random mating.

•  Dominant lethal mutation always eliminate from a populaton either it is large or small.

Forward and Backward Mutation :

 Wild gene Forward Backward ______________ Mutant gene

Mutator gene and Mutable gene :

•  Gene which induce mutation in another gene is called mutator gene and gene in which mutation is induced is called as mutable gene.

Neutral Mutation\Suppression :

•  Mutation in one gene is neutralised by mutation in another gene called as neutral mutation. So it means mutation without effect and in neutralisation two mutations are required.

Complementation :

•  Occur in Heterokaryon or dikaryon cells in which  two genetically different nuclei are present in a cell. Mutation effect in one nucleus is neutralised by the another nucleus of heterokaryon. This condition occur in Neurospora during somatogamy.

Hot Spot :

•  Place on DNA or gene where frequency of mutation is high.

•  In Prokaryotes frequency of mutation is high than eukaryotes due to naked DNA.

Muton (unit of mutation) :

•  Smallest part of DNA which undergoes mutation.

•  It is one nucleotide.

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Types of mutation - Principles of Inheritance and Evolution, Biology

Types of mutation :

i. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

ii. GENE MUTATIONS

Chromosomal Mutations :

•  Change in number or structure of chromosome.

Types of chromosomal mutation

(i) Heteroploidy/Genomatic mutation →  change in chromosome number.

(ii) Chromosomal aberration → change in structure of chromosome.

Heteroploidy / Genomatic mutation

•  Change in number of sets or chromosomes in sets. Two types –

(i) Euploidy → Change in number of sets.

(ii) Aneuploidy → Change in number of chromosome in set.

Euploidy :

• Change in number of sets/loss or addition of sets of chromosomes.

• In a normal diploid cell two sets of chromosome are present.

• Loss of one set (2n – n = n) monoploidy.

• Addn. of set called as polyploidy Addn. of one set called as Triploidy 2n + n = 3n

• Addn. of two sets called  as Tetraploidy 2n + 2n = 4n Addn. of three sets called as Pentaploidy 2n + 3n = 5n Addn. of four sets called as Hexaploidy 2n + 4n = 6n Addn. of five sets called as Heptaploidy 2n + 5n = 7n

• Octaploid plants rarely survive.

• Polyploid plants with even number of sets are always fertile, reproduce sexually and form seeds.

• Polyploid plants with odd number of sets are always sterile don't reproduce by sexual reproduction,  They don't produce seeds but they may produce seedless fruits by parthenocarpy. eg. Banana and seedless grapes.

Polyploidy is of two types :

1. Autopolyploidy :

• It is repetition of same set of chromosomes. eg. AAA.

• Cyanodon and Rose ®  Autortirploid plants

• These are sterile plants.

• Reproduce by vegetative propagation.

2. Allopolyploidy :

• More than one type of sets are present in these plants eg. AA BB.

• These plants are obtained by intergeneric cross.

e.g Raphanobrassica is  obtained by cross between Raddish and cabbage and first time obtained by Russian Scientist Karpechenko.

Aneuploidy : Loss or addition of chromosomes in sets of chromosomes.

Types of Aneuploidy : 1. Hypoaneuploidy (loss)

• 2n – 1 = monosomy :- (loss of one chromosome in one set).

• 2n – 1 – 1 = double monosomy (loss of one chromosome from each set,  but these are non homologus.)

• 2n – 2 = Nullisomy (loss of two homologus chromosome)

2. Hyperaneuploidy (add.)

• 2n + 1 = Trisomy : addition of one chromosome in one set.

• 2n + 1 + 1 = Double Trisomy : addition of one chromosome in each set.

• 2n + 2 = Tetrasomy : addition of two chromosome in one set.

• Cause of aneuploidy is chromosomal nondisjunction means chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis.

• Chances of aneuploidy are more in higher age female due to less activity of oocyte, so chances of syndrome increase in children who are born from higher age female.

2. Chromosomal Aberrations : Change in structure of chromosome.

(i) Deletion : Loss of a part or segment of chromosome which leads to loss of some gene is called as deletion.

It is of 2 types :-

(i) Terminal deletion - Loss of chromosomal segment from one or both ends.

eg. The cry -du-chat syndrome is an example of terminal deletion in short arm of 5th chromosome.

(ii) Intercalary deletion - Loss of chromosomal part between the ends.

(ii) Inversion : Breakage of chromosomal  segment but reunion on same chromosome in reverse orders. It leads to change in distance between genes on chromosome or sequence of genes on chromosome so crossing over is affected.

It is of 2 types :-

(i) Paracentric - If inversion occur only in one arm and inverted segment does not include centromere.

(ii) Pericentric - In this type of inversion inverted segment include centromere.

(iii) Duplication :

Occurence of a chromosomal segment twice on a chromosome. If in this segment any recessive gene is present, then it gives it's expression due to homozygous condition. If in this segment any recessive but lethal gene is present, it leads to death of organism.

Example : In drosophila "Bar eye character" is observed due to duplication in X-chromosome. Bar eye is a character where eyes are narrower as compared to normal eye shape.

IV Translocation : In this, a part of the chromosome is broken and may be joined with non homologous chromosome. This is also known asIllegitimate crossing over (illegeal crossing over) Three types of  translocation –

(A) Simple Translocation→ When a chromosomal segment breaks and attached to the terminal end of a non- homologous chromosome.

(B) Interstitial or shift translocation→ If a segment of chromosome breaks and gets inserted in interstitial position of a non homologous chromosome.

c) Reciprocal Translocation→ Exchange of segments between two non-homologous chromosome.

eg. Chronic myloid leukemia [C M L] is a type of blood cancer. This disease is a result of reciprocal transiocation between 22 and 9 chromosome.

Note : If exchange of segments takes place in between homologous chromosomes then it is called crossing over.

Gene Mutation or point mutation

Two types :-

1. Substitution

2. Frame shift mutation.

A. Substitution : Replacement of one nitrogenous base by another nitrogenous base is called as substitution.

•  It causes change in one codon in genetic code which leads to change in one amino acid in structure of protein. eg. Sickle cell anaemia

Main Point :

• Change may not occur because for one animo acid more than one type of codons are  present.

Substitution is of two types :-1. Transition 2. Transversion.

1. Transition : Replacement of one purine by another purine or replacement of pyrimidine by another pyrimidine.

Methods of Transition :-

1. By Tautomerisation :- By this method transition is induced by HNO₂. HNO₂ changes normal structure of nitrogenous base and changed nitrogenous base is called as Tautomer.

•  In structure of adenine and guanine, amino group is present, HNO₂ changes it into imino group.

•  In the structure of cytosine and thymine, keto group is present. Which is changed into enol group by HNO₂.

•  In first DNA replication, Tautomer of adenine pairs with a normal cytosine and Tautomer of thymine pairs with normal guanine.

•  It is unusual pairing which is called as forbidden pairing so a wrong type of DNA is formed in cell.

•  In second DNA replication normal cytosine pairs with normal guanine and normal guanine pairs with normal cytosine.

•  It is usual pairing so transition completes in two DNA replication (Tautomers always perform forbidden pairing)

2. By Ionisation :

•  By this method transition is induced by ionising radiation like X-ray. These radiations convert nitrogenous bases in their ions and ions perform forbidden pairing. So by this method transition is completed in two DNA replications.

3. By Base Analogues :

•  Transition is induced by chemicals which are same as nitrogenous base in function. They are called base analogues or duplicates of nitrogenous base. eg. Aminopurine is base analogue to Adenine (purine) 5–Bromo uracil is base analogue to thymine (pyrimidine),5-Iodo uracil is base analogue to guanine,5-Chloro uracil is base analogue to cytosine.

•  In I DNA replication base analogues get establish in normal structure of DNA.

•  In II DNA replication they perform forbidden pairing.

•  In III DNA replication transition is completed.

Transversion :

•  Replacement of purine by pyrimidine or pyrimidine by purine is called transversion.

•  EMS r Ethyl methane sulphonate

•  M MS r Methyl methane sulphonate

•  These chemicals causes depurination means they remove one purine from structure of DNA. So a gap is formed.

•  If this gap is filled by another purine then it is called as transition.

• *But if this gap is filled by pyrimidine then it is called as transversion.

• So EMS and MMS may cause both transition and transversion.
  Frame shift mutation/Gibberish mutation :

• (1) Acredine (2) proflavin These chemicals causes loss or addition of one or two nitrogenous bases in structure of DNA so complete reading of genetic code is changed. It leads to change in all animo acids in structure of protein so a new protein is formed which is completely different from previous protein. ­
  A TG          ACG      GAC       AGA        AAC .................................
  A TG          CGG     A CA      GAA        AC  .................................

• So frame shift mutations are more harmful as compared to  substitution.

• Thallesemia (lethal genetic disorder) Mutagens :

• Mutagens are those substances which cause mutations :-

1. Radiation :- are two types

(i) Ionising :- a, b, g, X-ray

(ii) Non ionising :- U. V. rays.

• U. V. rays has less penetration power and skin of higher organisms absorb  radiations. So they don't cause any effect in higher animals, but U. V. rays and radiations are effective mutagens in microbes and due to more effect leads to death of microbes. So U. V. rays are used to sterilize operation theatre.

• Radiations mainly cause chromosomal aberrations which cause major change in organisms. So chromosomal mutations are more important in evolution.

• U. V. rays and HNO₂ cause deamination of nitrogenous base means they remove amino group from nitrogenous base by deamination of,
  ​Adenine ¾ → Hypoxanthine Guanine ¾ → Xanthine Cytosine ¾ → Uracil U.V. rays do not cause deamination in thymine. By U.V. rays two adjacent thymine bind together and form thymine-dimer.

2. Chemical mutagens:-eg. Mustard gas (first identified Chemical Mutagens) Carbon tetra sulphide, Nitrous acid (HNO₂) Organic peroxide, Ethyl urethane, Pesticides etc.

DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane) LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)

• Chemical mutagens are more harmful than radiations because body is not protected against chemicals.

• Source of chemical mutagens are food, air and water.

• Effect of radiation is localised, while chemical mutagens spread in complete body through blood circulation and when they reach in gonads they cause germinal mutation.

• Chemicals also cause chromosomal mutations.

Antibiotics : 1. Neomycin 2. Kenamycin 3. Streptomycin

These antibiotics combine with small subunit of prokaryotic ribosome and Cause misreading of genetic code or induce error in translation.
Main Point :

• Same effect of puromycin antiboitic in eukaryotes.