NCERT Summary: Eighteenth-Century Political Formations (Class 7) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

The eighteenth century in India saw the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of new powers and kingdoms. Different regions were ruled by various leaders who sought to expand their control. In this chapter, we'll explore how these new political formations emerged and influenced India's history.

• Emergence of Independent Kingdoms: As Mughal authority weakened, various independent kingdoms began to rise and establish their own domains across the subcontinent.
• British Expansion: By 1765, the British East India Company had successfully acquired major territories in eastern India, marking the beginning of substantial colonial presence in the region.
• Political Realignment: The period was marked by dramatic shifts in political power and territorial control, illustrating a rapid transformation in the subcontinent’s political landscape.
• Mughal Empire Decline: The maps below show a significant decline in Mughal territorial control, with the empire's boundaries becoming increasingly fragmented.

  British territories in the mid-eighteenth century

The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

The Mughal Empire, once successful, faced crises in the late 17th century as Emperor Aurangzeb's prolonged war in the Deccan drained the empire's military and financial reserves.

Emperor Aurangzeb

Breakdown of Administration

• The efficiency of the imperial administration declined under Aurangzeb's successors.
• Powerful nobles, appointed as governors (subadars), gained control over revenue and military administration (diwani and faujdari).
• This allowed them to exercise significant political, economic, and military power over vast regions, diminishing the authority of the Mughal emperors. 

Peasant and Zamindari Rebellions - Rebellions by peasants and zamindars (landlords) in northern and western India added to the empire's problems. 

• Causes of Revolts:

  (i)Some uprisings were triggered by high taxes and economic pressures.
  (ii)Other times, powerful local leaders led revolts to strengthen their own positions.

• Seizing Control: Unlike earlier challenges to Mughal authority, these rebellious groups were now able to take over economic resources and establish their own control.

• Weakening of Mughal Control: After Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperors struggled to stop the shift of power and economic control to regional governors, local chieftains, and other groups.

Invasions and Raids 

• In 1739, Nadir Shah from Iran invaded and looted Delhi, taking a huge amount of wealth with him.
• Afghan Raids by Ahmad Shah Abdali: After Nadir Shah's invasion, Ahmad Shah Abdali from Afghanistan conducted multiple raids on northern India, invading the region five times between 1748 and 1761.

Factionalism and Instability

• Different groups of nobles, divided into the Iranis and Turanis, competed for power within the Mughal court.
• Later, Mughal emperors became puppets and controlled by either of these powerful groups.
• The rulers felt ashamed and were treated badly, with some being killed and others being blinded by noble people.
• The most severe disgrace occurred when two rulers of the Mughal dynasty, Farrukh Siyar (1713–1719) and Alamgir II (1754–1759), were killed, and two others, Ahmad Shah (1748–1754) and Shah Alam II (1759–1816), had their vision taken away by their trusted advisors.
  
  Farrukh Siyar received a noble in court. 

Rise of Provincial Authorities

• With the decline of Mughal authority, governors of large provinces and influential zamindars merged their power.
• Regions like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad saw the rise of these provincial authorities.

Three Main Groups of States during the 18th Century:

1. Old Mughal Provinces: States like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad were once Mughal provinces. While powerful and independent, they maintained formal ties with the Mughal emperor.

2. Watan Jagirs: Some states, including various Rajput principalities, had considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs.

3. States Controlled by Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats: The third group comprised states under the influence of Marathas, Sikhs, and others like the Jats. These states, varying in size, gained independence through prolonged armed struggles against the Mughals.

Many Rajput kings, particularly those from Amber and Jodhpur, served under the Mughal Empire and gained distinction. In return, they were granted significant autonomy in their territories known as Watan Jagirs.

• Attempting Control: In the 18th century, these influential Rajput rulers aimed to expand their authority beyond their existing territories. Ajit Singh the ruler of Jodhpur, also played a role in the politics at the Mughal court.
• Claiming Rich Provinces: The Rajput families sought to gain control over the prosperous provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. Raja Ajit Singh held the governorship of Gujarat, while Sawai Raja Jai Singh governed Malwa. These positions were renewed by Emperor Jahandar Shah in 1713.
• Territory Expansion: The Rajputs also sought to extend their territories by capturing neighboring regions that were under imperial control. The house of Jodhpur conquered Nagaur and added it to their domain, while Amber seized significant portions of Bundi.
• New Capitals and Subadari: Sawai Raja Jai Singh established his new capital in Jaipur and was appointed as the subadar (governor) of Agra in 1722, further consolidating Rajput power.
• Maratha Pressure: The Maratha campaigns in Rajasthan from the 1740s onwards exerted immense pressure on these Rajput principalities and restrained their further expansion.

Seizing Independence

(i) The Sikhs

Guru Gobind Singh, the leader of the Sikhs, fought against Rajput and Mughal rulers in several battles during the seventeenth century. After establishing the Khalsa in 1699, the Sikhs revolted against Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur's leadership after his death in 1708.

Guru Gobind Singh JiThey declared their sovereignty, minted their own coins in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and formed their own administration in the region between the Sutlej and the Jamuna rivers.

(a) Formation of Bands and Misl: 

• In the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into bands known as jathas, and later into misls.
• These groups combined their forces to create the grand army, called dal khalsa.
• They held collective meetings in Amritsar during Baisakhi and Diwali to make important decisions known as "Resolutions of the Guru."

(b) Introduction of Rakhi System: The Sikhs introduced the rakhi system, where cultivators were offered protection in exchange for a tax payment of 20% of their produce.

(c) Belief in Sovereignty: 

• Inspired by Guru Gobind Singh, the Khalsa believed in their destiny to rule.
• Their strong organization allowed them to resist Mughal governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali, who had seized the Punjab province and the Sarkar of Sirhind from the Mughals.

(d) Coinage and Territorial Expansion: 

• The Khalsa declared their sovereignty again in 1765 by minting their own coins, bearing the same inscription as the ones issued during Banda Bahadur's time. 
• By the late eighteenth century, Sikh territories spanned from the Indus to the Jamuna rivers, although they were divided under different rulers.

(e) Reunification under Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Maharaja Ranjit Singh played a crucial role in reuniting the Sikh groups and establishing his capital in Lahore in 1799.

(ii) The Marathas

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, with the support of powerful warrior families, created a stable kingdom opposing Mughal rule in 1630. The Maratha army consisted of mobile peasant-pastoralists, forming the backbone of their forces. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the Mughals in the peninsula and built a strong kingdom. 

(a) The Peshwas and Military Success: After Shivaji's death, the Chitpavan Brahmanas, serving as Peshwas, held effective power in the Maratha state.

• The Marathas developed a successful military organization under the Peshwas.
• They bypassed Mughal fortifications, raided cities, and engaged Mughal armies where their supply lines and reinforcements could be disrupted.

(b) Expansion and Influence:

• From 1720 to 1761, the Maratha empire expanded, gradually eroding Mughal authority.
• They seized territories such as Malwa and Gujarat from the Mughals and became recognized overlords of the Deccan peninsula.
• By the 1730s, the Maratha king was the top ruler of the Deccan peninsula, having the right to collect taxes (chauth and sardeshmukhi) from the entire region. 

Expansion of the Maratha Empire during 1720-1761

• Maratha domination extended into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, and the Tamil and Telugu regions.
• While these territories were not formally included in the Maratha empire, they paid tribute as a sign of Maratha sovereignty.
• The Marathas' military campaigns created enemies among other rulers. Because of this, these rulers didn't want to help the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. 

(c) Administrative System and Prosperity:

• The Marathas engaged in numerous military campaigns to expand their territory.
• Besides conquering lands, the Marathas developed an effective administrative system. 
• After securing rule, the Marathas gradually introduced revenue demands, considering local conditions.
• They encouraged agriculture and revived trade, providing resources for Maratha chiefs to build strong armies.
• Maratha Chiefs(sardars) like Sindhia, Gaekwad, and Bhonsle benefited from this, enabling them to raise powerful armies.

(d) Trade and Commercial Centers:

(iii) The Jats

During the late 17th and 18th centuries, the Jats, like other states, strengthened their authority. Led by Churaman, they gained control over territories west of Delhi and gradually dominated the region between Delhi and Agra.

Eighteenth-century palace complex at Dig 

They even became the de facto protectors of Agra for a period of time.

(a) Prosperous Agriculturists and Trading Centers

• The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, contributing to their wealth and influence.
• Trading centers like Panipat and Ballabhgarh thrived under their dominance.

(b) Emergence of the Kingdom of Bharatpur

• Under the leadership of Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
• When Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in 1739, many notable individuals sought refuge in Bharatpur.
• Suraj Mal's son, Jawahir Shah, commanded 30,000 troops and hired an additional 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh soldiers to fight against the Mughals.

(c) Architectural Influence

• The Jats constructed the Bharatpur fort in a traditional style.
• In Dig, they built an elaborate garden palace that combined architectural elements from Amber and Agra.
•  The buildings at Dig were modeled on architectural forms first associated with royalty during Shah Jahan's reign.

Important Events

• 1707 – Aurangzeb died.1739 – Nadir Shah invaded Delhi.
• 1713-1719 – Farrukh Siyar reigned the Mughal Empire.
• 1754-1759 – Alamgir 11 reigned the Mughal Empire.
• 1724-1748 – Asaf Jah remained the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• 1722 – Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was appointed Subadar of Awadh.
• 1699 – The year in which Khalsa was instituted.
• 1708 – Guru Gobind Singh died.
• 1715 – Banda Bahadur was captured
• 1716 – Banda Bahadur was executed.
• 1799 – Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his capital at Lahore.
• 1627-1680 – The period of Shivaji.
• 1761 – Third battle of Panipat.