Revolutions | AP World History - Grade 9 PDF Download

The Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment: It was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century.
• Key Ideas:
  • Emphasis on reason and individualism over tradition and authority.
  • Belief in progress, science, and the power of human reason to improve society.
  • Advocacy for liberty, tolerance, constitutional government, and the separation of church and state.
• Impact: The Enlightenment had a profound influence on politics, philosophy, science, and society as a whole.
• Examples:
  • Voltaire: The French philosopher Voltaire was a key figure of the Enlightenment known for his advocacy of freedom of speech and religion.
  • John Locke: His ideas on natural rights and the social contract greatly influenced the Enlightenment thinkers and the founding fathers of the United States.

17th and 18th centuries - Humankind in Relation to Government

• Divine Right
• Question of Ultimate Authority
• Mandate of Heaven in China
• Social Contract
• Philosophers of the Age
• Enlightened Monarchs
• Neoclassical Period

Divine Right

• Church allied with strong monarchs
• Monarchs believed they were ordained by God to rule
• People had moral and religious obligation to obey

Question of Ultimate Authority

• Mandate of Heaven in China - Rulers had to rule justly to be appreciated in heaven

Social Contract

• Governments were not formed by divine decree but to meet social and economic needs

Enlightenment Thinkers

• Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) believed that government should maintain peace and stability through a powerful ruler with heavy-handed control.
• John Locke: John Locke (1632-1704) argued that all individuals are born equal and inherently good and rational. He emphasized that the primary role of government is to protect natural rights, and he justified revolting against a government that fails to do so.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) proposed that all individuals are equal and society should be organized based on the general will of the people. He viewed government as a protector of the community, promoting freedom for all.
• Voltaire: Voltaire (1694-1778) advocated for religious toleration, emphasizing the importance of allowing diverse beliefs and practices.
• Montesquieu: Montesquieu (1689-1775) introduced the concept of the separation of powers, suggesting that different branches of government should have distinct responsibilities to prevent the concentration of power in one entity.
• David Hume: David Hume (1711-1776) questioned religious beliefs by highlighting the lack of empirical evidence, which led to doubts about the validity of religious doctrines.

Additional Concepts from the Enlightenment Era

• Enlightened Monarchs: Rulers who embraced ideas of tolerance, justice, and the enhancement of quality of life for their subjects.
• Neoclassical Period: An artistic movement in the mid-18th century that drew inspiration from the aesthetics of ancient Greek and Roman architecture.

Neoclassical Period

• Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and Europe
  • American Revolution
    • Conflict between British and France over American territory during the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War led to French retreat
    • Americans rebelled against British rule due to laws imposed by British representatives like George Grenville and Charles Townshend
    • Key legislations such as the Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), and Tea Act (1773) were introduced to generate revenue for the British government
    • Colonists resisted these laws, sparking conflicts with British forces, notably seen in events like the Boston Tea Party (1773)
    • Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" advocated for self-governance, leading to the Declaration of Independence six months later
    • Alliances shifted, with France supporting the Americans in 1777 and contributing to the British defeat in 1781, paving the way for American democracy

American Revolution

• The British enacted laws on behalf of the Crown for the American colonizers, including figures like George Grenville and Charles Townshend, such as the Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), and Tea Act (1773) with the aim of generating funds for the British government.
• Colonizers resisted these laws, sparking conflicts with British troops. An iconic event was the Boston Tea Party in 1773, where colonists protested the Tea Act by throwing imported tea into the harbor.
• Thomas Paine, through his influential work "Common Sense," urged colonizers to establish a superior government system compared to monarchy. This call to action culminated in the signing of the Declaration of Independence six months later.
• In 1777, France allied with the Americans, ultimately defeating the British in 1781. This victory marked the establishment of American democracy.

French Revolution

• The French Revolution was a pivotal period in history characterized by socio-political upheaval in France. It led to the overthrow of the monarchy, the rise of radical political factions, and significant changes in French society.
• One of the key events was the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, symbolizing the beginning of the revolution and the fight against oppressive monarchical rule.
• The Reign of Terror, under the leadership of figures like Maximilien Robespierre, saw mass executions and heightened political tensions as radical factions sought to consolidate power.
• The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, a military general who seized control and became Emperor, marked a significant turning point in the revolution, leading to an era of Napoleonic Wars across Europe.
• Financial Crisis in France
  • France faced financial difficulties due to excessive spending by the monarchy, costly wars, and periods of drought.
  • King Louis XVI proposed increasing taxes to fund the government operations, leading to discontent among the population.
• Estates-General
  • The Estates-General was a rare assembly summoned by the monarchy to address national issues.
  • Comprised of three estates: the clergy (First Estate), noble families (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate).
  • Each estate sent representatives to voice their grievances and concerns.
• National Assembly and the Bastille
  • The Third Estate, representing commoners, faced exclusion in the formation of a new constitution.
  • In response, they formed the National Assembly in 1789 to advocate for their rights and interests.
  • Subsequently, the storming of the Bastille symbolized a significant moment of popular uprising.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man
  • The National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, ushering in profound changes to the French government structure.
  • This document emphasized principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, influencing the course of the revolution.
• The Reign of Terror and the Directory
  • The radical phase of the revolution saw the rise of the Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, which resorted to extreme measures to suppress opposition.
  • The execution of Robespierre marked the end of the Reign of Terror, leading to the establishment of the Directory as the new governing body.
• Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Era
  • Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as a prominent military leader and eventually seized power in France in 1799.
  • His Napoleonic Codes, introduced in 1804, promoted legal equality and contributed to the restructuring of European territories.
  • Napoleon's military conquests triggered coalitions against France, culminating in his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
  • The Congress of Vienna convened to restore stability in Europe and contain the revolutionary ideals of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• Initially established a constitutional monarchy, later transitioning to a republic under the Convention.

Convention

• The Convention discarded the constitution and formed the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre, which enforced revolutionary principles.

Jacobins

• The Jacobins were a radical faction within the Convention that played a significant role in the French Revolution.

Committee of Public Safety

• Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety was responsible for eliminating counter-revolutionaries.

Maximilien Robespierre

• Robespierre was executed in 1795, leading to the establishment of a new constitution with the Directory as the governing body.

Directory

• The Directory focused on strengthening the military, with figures like Napoleon Bonaparte rising within its ranks.

Summary of Historical Events

• Napoleon rose to power by overthrowing the Directory in 1799. He introduced the Napoleonic Codes in 1804, which emphasized the equality of all men. His military campaigns led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, and he engaged in conflicts with various European powers. Notable figures like Prince von Metternich, Alexander I of Russia, and the Duke of Wellington played key roles in opposing Napoleon. Ultimately, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1813.
• The Congress of Vienna convened in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat. The primary objective was to restore stability in Europe by maintaining a balance of power among the major nations. Additionally, the Congress aimed to suppress the revolutionary ideals that had emerged during the French Revolution.
  • The Congress of Vienna focused on ensuring that no single nation would dominate Europe, emphasizing the importance of shared power among the major players.

Balance of Power

• Tried to eliminate the impact of the French Revolution

Haiti:

France had enslaved numerous Haitians, but they successfully rebelled, with leaders like Pierre Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jacques Dessalines.

• France enslaved a large number of Haitians, who later revolted under the leadership of Pierre Toussaint L'Ouverture. Jacques Dessalines, a former slave, assumed the role of governor-general in 1804.

Pierre Toussaint L'Ouverture:

• Jacques Dessalines, previously a slave, took on the position of governor-general in 1804.

South America

South America

South America

• Napoleon's Invasion of Spain
• Simón Bolívar's Leadership in Venezuela
• Independence from Spain
• José de San Martin's Role

Napoleon's Invasion of Spain

• Invasion by Napoleon, who appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the Spanish monarch.

Simón Bolívar's Leadership in Venezuela

• Colonists in Venezuela expelled the French governor and chose Simón Bolívar as their leader.
• Bolívar played a key role in Venezuela's independence from Spain in 1811.

Independence from Spain

• Bolívar facilitated the declaration of independence for Gran Colombia, comprising Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.
• Establishment of a national congress and opposition from Spanish royalists led to a civil war.

José de San Martin's Role

• San Martin commanded the armies of Argentina, Chile, and Peru, securing independence from Spain through various victories.

Bolívar and Gran Colombia

• Bolívar achieved independence for Gran Colombia, which included Columbia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

José de San Martin's Achievements

• José de San Martin led the Argentinian, Chilean, and Peruvian armies to victory against Spanish forces, securing independence from Spain.

The Role of José de San Martin

• Jose de San Martin played a crucial role in South American independence movements.

Independence of Brazil

• John VI of Portugal sought refuge in Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars, leading to his son, Pedro, declaring Brazil independent and instituting a constitution.
• Under Pedro II's rule, slavery was abolished in Brazil.

Pedro

• Pedro II succeeded and put an end to slavery.

Mexico

• In 1810, priest Miguel Hidalgo initiated a rebellion against Spanish dominance. Unfortunately, he was later executed.
• Jose Morelos continued Hidalgo's mission after his death.
• Mexico achieved independence in 1821 through the Treaty of Cordoba, marking the end of Spain's 300-year rule over Latin America.
• Neocolonialism persisted, where wealthy elites retained control over the nation's economic and political systems.
• The Mexican Revolution emerged as a response to neocolonialism, rejecting Porfirio Diaz's authoritative regime and the prevailing impoverished conditions.

Treaty of Cordoba

• Neocolonialism:
  • Independent nations are still influenced by economic and political interests.
• Mexican Revolution:
  • Protest against neocolonialism.
  • Rejection of Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship due to impoverished conditions.

Neocolonialism

• Riches often remained within the wealthy landowning class.
• Mexican Revolution was a response to neocolonialism, symbolized by the rejection of Porfirio Diaz's oppressive rule.

Mexican Revolution

• Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship led to widespread poverty and dissatisfaction among the Mexican population.

• Muhammad Ahdam and the Mahadists
  • Muhammad Ahdam led the Mahadists in a rebellion against Egyptian colonial rule, which was ultimately thwarted by the British.
• Continuation of Slavery and Class Inequalities
  • Slavery persisted in nations that had gained independence, alongside enduring class disparities.
  • The Catholic Church maintained significant influence during this period.
• Comparison of Independence Movements

  American Colonies 1764-1787	France 1789-1799	Haiti 1799-1804	Latin America 1810-1820s
  Causes: Unfair taxation, war debt	Causes: Unfair taxation, war debt, French Enlightenment, social and racial inequalities	Causes: Social inequalities, removal of peninsulares

Key Events

• Boston Tea Party
• Continental Congress
• Declaration of Independence
• Constitution and Bill of Rights
• Tennis Court Oath
• National Assembly
• Declaration of Rights of Man
• Storming Bastille
• Reign of Terror
• 5 Man Directory
• Civil war
• Slave revolt
• Invasion of Napoleon
• Peasant revolts
• Creole revolts
• Gran Colombia

Major Players

• George III
• Thomas Paine
• Thomas Jefferson
• George Washington
• Louis XVI
• Three Estates
• Jacobin Party
• Robespierre
• Boukman
• Gens de Couleur
• Toussaint L’Overture
• Napoleon Bonaparte
• Miguel Hidalgo
• Simón Bolívar
• José de San Martin
• Emperor Pedro I

Impacts

• Independence: This led to the spread of Federal Democracy in various regions such as France, Haiti, and Mexico.
• Rise of Napoleon: The emergence and reign of Napoleon had significant consequences on the political landscape.
• Congress of Vienna: This event marked a pivotal moment in European history, reshaping boundaries and power dynamics.
• Constitutional Monarchy: The establishment of constitutional monarchies became a prevalent form of governance in certain regions.
• Destruction of Economy: The process of gaining independence often involved economic turmoil and challenges.
• Antislavery Movements: Movements against slavery gained traction in the wake of independence struggles.
• Continued Inequalities: Despite achieving independence, many regions continued to grapple with social and economic disparities.
• Federal Democracy in Mexico: Mexico adopted a system of government characterized by federalism and democratic principles.
• Creole Republics: Regions led by Creole elites emerged as independent republics.
• Constitutional Monarchy in Brazil: Brazil established a form of government where a monarch's powers are defined by a constitution.

Industry and Imperialism

• Industrial Revolution: The period marked by advancements in manufacturing and technology, leading to significant societal and economic changes.
• Imperialism: The expansion of empires through colonization and conquest, often driven by economic interests and power dynamics.

Industrial Revolution in Britain and Imperialism

• Industrial revolution in Britain was closely linked with imperialism.
• Industrialized countries rapidly acquired power to exploit resources in colonies.
• Commencing in the 19th century in Britain, the Industrial Revolution disseminated across Europe, Japan, and the US.

Impacts of the Industrial Revolution

• Agricultural productivity surged, prompting mass migration to urban centers.
• Enclosure policies converted communal farming lands into privately fenced areas.
• Innovative farming technologies emerged.
• Urbanization escalated naturally, exemplified by London's population surpassing 6 million.

Enclosure Policies

• Public agricultural lands transitioned into enclosed, private holdings.

New Farming Technologies

• Introduction of advanced agricultural techniques.

Urbanization

• Natural urban growth, demonstrated by London's substantial population increase.

Technological Advancements

• Innovations such as the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, and cotton gin revolutionized textile production.
• Key inventions like the steam engine, steamship, steam-powered locomotive, telegraph, telephone, lightbulb, and internal combustion engine transformed various industries.

Social and Economic Transformations

• Emergence of factory production led to mass creation of goods.
• Introduction of interchangeable parts and assembly lines revolutionized manufacturing processes.
• Workers endured harsh conditions, sparking the formation of distinct social classes.
• Noteworthy economic ideologies like Adam Smith's capitalism and Karl Marx's socialism emerged.

Government Interventions

• Legislation like the Factory Act of 1883 imposed restrictions to improve working conditions.
• Labor unions were established to advocate for better treatment of employees.

Societal Changes

• Improvements in living standards, expansion of the middle class, and enhanced access to education characterized the era.
• Abolition of the slave trade and evolving gender roles were significant societal shifts.

Urbanization

• Domestic System
  • New advancements that changed production:
    • Flying shuttle: This innovation accelerated the weaving process.
    • Spinning jenny: Revolutionized thread spinning by handling large quantities efficiently.
    • Cotton gin: Created by Eli Whitney, this device processed large amounts of cotton rapidly.
    • Steam engine: Developed by Thomas Newcomen and improved by James Watt, this invention transformed industries.
    • Steamship: Pioneered by Robert Fulton, steam-powered ships revolutionized transportation.
    • Steam-powered Locomotive: George Stephenson's locomotive innovation reshaped land transportation.
    • Telegraph: Enabled communication across vast distances in mere seconds.
    • Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell's invention revolutionized personal communication.
    • Lightbulb: Thomas Edison's creation illuminated the world.
    • Internal Combustion Engine for cars: Transformed the automotive industry.
    • Radio: Altered the way information and entertainment were transmitted.

Steam-powered Locomotive

• Revolutionized transportation
• Enabled rapid movement of goods and people
• Contributed to the growth of industries

Telegraph

• Revolutionized communication
• Allowed instant messaging across great distances
• Reduced communication time significantly

Telephone

• Further advanced communication technology
• Invented by Alexander Graham Bell
• Enabled voice communication over long distances

Lightbulb

• Transformed indoor and outdoor lighting
• Extended work and leisure hours
• Boosted industrial productivity

Internal Combustion Engine

• Revolutionized transportation
• Powered automobiles and other vehicles
• Enabled faster and more efficient travel

Radio

• Changed entertainment and information dissemination
• Allowed mass communication over airwaves
• Popularized music and news broadcasting

Major Developments in Medicine and Science

• Significant advancements in healthcare
• Exploration of natural selection theory by Charles Darwin
• Improved understanding of human biology and evolution

Industrial Revolution

• Shifted production from manual to mechanized processes
• Introduced assembly line and interchangeable parts
• Resulted in exploitation of labor, including child workers
• Led to improved efficiency but also raised social concerns

Interchangeable Parts

• Assembly Line: In this system, each worker was responsible for a small part in production, essentially turning the worker into a component of the overall machine.

Assembly Line

• Workers' Plight: Workers were subjected to long hours, low wages, and hazardous working conditions, with child labor being a prevalent issue.
• Harsh Conditions: The working environment was often desperate and challenging.
• New Social Classes: The industrial revolution led to the emergence of distinct social classes, including wealthy industrialists (aristocrats), skilled professionals (middle class), and a vast working class.
• Adam Smith's Ideas: Adam Smith advocated for success through private ownership and a free market system, promoting laissez-faire capitalism where governments played a minimal role in regulation.

Adam Smith's Contributions

• Free Market System: Smith championed the concept of a free market where prices are determined by competition without government interference.
• Capitalism: He supported a system where private individuals own the means of production for profit.
• Laissez-faire Capitalism: Smith believed in minimal government intervention in economic affairs, allowing markets to operate freely.
• Financial Developments: This era marked the inception of the stock market and various financial instruments, influenced by Smith's ideologies.

Key Theoretical Concepts

• Karl Marx's Ideologies:
  • Marxism as the foundation for socialism and communism, advocating for the working class to take over the means of production and resources equally.
• Luddites:
  • Workers who protested poor working conditions by destroying equipment.
  • Marxist ideas combined with capitalist influences to form partly socialist systems in various regions.
• Response to Inhumane Factory Conditions:
  • Significant divergence among intellectuals and policymakers regarding how to address harsh working environments.
• Historical Developments:
  • Factory Act of 1883:
    • Imposed limits on daily work hours, prohibited child labor, and mandated factory owners to enhance safety conditions.
  • Impact on Society:
    • Labour Unions emerged as platforms for employees to negotiate improved working conditions.
    • Socioeconomic changes:
      • Rise of the middle class, expansion of public education, and increased social mobility.
      • Abolition of the slave trade in Britain in 1807.
      • Restriction of women to traditional roles.

Nationalist Movements and Other Developments

• Factory Act of 1883
  • Labour Unions: platforms for workers to negotiate for improved conditions
  • Enhanced Living Conditions: led to the growth of the middle class, expansion of public education, and increased social mobility
  • Abolition of Slave Trade: occurred in Britain in 1807
  • Restriction of Women to Traditional Roles
• Nationalist Movements and Other Developments
  • Nationalist Movements: various movements aiming for self-governance or independence
  • Technological Advancements: innovations that revolutionized industries and communication
  • Urbanization: rapid growth of cities due to industrialization
  • Colonialism Impact: European powers' colonization of territories worldwide

Nationalism in Europe

• Nationalism Emergence Post Napoleonic Era
• Unification in Italy and Germany
• Other Nationalist Movements

Nationalism Emergence Post Napoleonic Era

• Strong nationalism emerged after the Napoleonic era.
• France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and Russia experienced unification.
• Italy and Germany, as city-states, faced challenges in unifying and reshaping the European power balance.

Unification in Italy and Germany

• Italy: Count Camillo Cavour, appointed prime minister of Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel II, advocated for nationalism. Giuseppe Garibaldi, another nationalist figure, played a key role in unifying various Italian regions by 1861.
• Germany: Under the leadership of William I, Prussia, a significant portion of present-day Germany, appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister. Bismarck orchestrated victories over Austria and in the Franco-Prussian War, leading to the establishment of the German Empire. However, William II's ascension marked the dismissal of Bismarck and a substantial military buildup.

Other Nationalist Movements

• Russia: The Romanov czars wielded absolute power in the 19th century. Alexander II initiated reforms such as the Emancipation Edict, which abolished serfdom with limited impact. The emergence of a small middle class gave rise to intellectual and political movements, culminating in the assassination of Alexander II by The People's Will. Alexander III responded with Russification policies, mandating the adoption of the Russian language and Orthodox religion.
• Ottoman Empire: Faced with the threat of collapse, the Ottoman Empire was supported by Britain and France to prevent Russian dominance over the Mediterranean region.

Summary of Italian and German Unification

• Italian Unification:
  • Count Camillo Cavour became the prime minister of Sardinia, supported by Victor Emmanuel II, advocating for nationalism.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi, another nationalist figure, played a significant role in unifying various Italian kingdoms.
  • In 1861, a substantial part of Italy was unified.
• Key Figures in Italian Unification:
  • Count Camillo Cavour
  • Victor Emmanuel II
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi
• German Unification:
  • Prussia, led by William I, controlled a significant portion of present-day Germany.
  • William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister, who played a crucial role in defeating Austria and establishing the German Empire.
  • The Franco-Prussian War further solidified the creation of the new German Empire.
  • Later, Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck, focusing on expanding the military.
• Key Figures in German Unification:
  • William I
  • Otto von Bismarck
  • Emperor William II

William II

• Other Nationalist Movements:
• 
• Russia:
• 
  
  • Romanov czars wielded absolute power during the 19th century.
  • Alexander II initiated reforms through the Emancipation Edict, which aimed to abolish serfdom but yielded limited results.
  • A small middle class began to emerge, fostering an intellectual political group known as The People's Will, who assassinated Alexander II.
  • In response, Alexander III enforced Russification, mandating the adoption of the Russian language and conversion to Russian Orthodoxy.