Page 1 72 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE MISSIONS Why in News? Recently, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) invited proposals for the three-phase development of a 100-Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). More on the News • The centre envisions using Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) for power generation and thermal management of ISRO’s deep space missions. • RTG is a type of Nuclear-based power system that is generally used for power generation and thermal management of space missions. Types of Nuclear Power Systems (NPS) with application in Space missions • Radioisotope power systems (RPSs): They are a type of nuclear energy technology that uses heat (produced by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium- 238) to produce electric power for operating spacecraft systems and science instruments. There are two types of radioisotope power systems: o Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU): Small devices that provide heat to keep a spacecraft’s electronic instruments and mechanical systems operational in the cold temperatures of our solar system. This heat is transferred to spacecraft structures, systems, and instruments directly, without moving parts or intervening electronic components. o Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): Flight-proven systems that provide power and heat to a spacecraft (see infographic). RTGs were first used in space during the Cold War in 1961 for the US’s Transit-4A Mission. • Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Nuclear power can be used for a rocket propulsion system. NASA is currently working on development of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, which are powered by Nuclear Fission. o NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core. Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. o This physical process heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust. o NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed to leave the Earth's surface. Instead, they will be launched into space by chemical rockets before they are turned on. Page 2 72 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE MISSIONS Why in News? Recently, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) invited proposals for the three-phase development of a 100-Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). More on the News • The centre envisions using Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) for power generation and thermal management of ISRO’s deep space missions. • RTG is a type of Nuclear-based power system that is generally used for power generation and thermal management of space missions. Types of Nuclear Power Systems (NPS) with application in Space missions • Radioisotope power systems (RPSs): They are a type of nuclear energy technology that uses heat (produced by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium- 238) to produce electric power for operating spacecraft systems and science instruments. There are two types of radioisotope power systems: o Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU): Small devices that provide heat to keep a spacecraft’s electronic instruments and mechanical systems operational in the cold temperatures of our solar system. This heat is transferred to spacecraft structures, systems, and instruments directly, without moving parts or intervening electronic components. o Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): Flight-proven systems that provide power and heat to a spacecraft (see infographic). RTGs were first used in space during the Cold War in 1961 for the US’s Transit-4A Mission. • Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Nuclear power can be used for a rocket propulsion system. NASA is currently working on development of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, which are powered by Nuclear Fission. o NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core. Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. o This physical process heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust. o NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed to leave the Earth's surface. Instead, they will be launched into space by chemical rockets before they are turned on. 73 Associated Benefits with use of Nuclear Technology in Space • RTGs are highly reliable and maintenance-free: The absence of moving parts in thermocouples reduces the chances of failure and wear out. • Enable deep space and interplanetary travel: Nuclear-propelled rockets are more fuel efficient and lighter than chemical rockets. Hence, they would travel further, are faster, and would shorten the trip time. o This would also prove beneficial for human space travel as the astronauts’ exposure to harmful space radiations would be lessened, thereby, decreasing the mission’s overall risk. o Also, it would make interplanetary travel easier. First generation NTP systems could cut total mission duration in half, while still leaving adequate time for Mars surface exploration. • RTGs as an alternative to solar power: Solar power is not an option for space objects meant to operate on the dark sides of celestial objects where sunlight is obscured or those sent to far off missions away from the sun. For example, Saturn is about ten times farther from the sun than Earth, and the available sunlight there is only one percent, of what we receive at Earth. • Flexible launch windows: RTGs are independent of solar proximity and planetary alignment. This characteristic would help in minimising constraints like the ‘launch windows’ that the scientists have to operate within. • Continuous operation over long-duration space missions: RPS function largely independent of changes in sunlight, temperature, charged particle radiation, or surface conditions like thick clouds or dust. Way forward • Maintaining highest standards of safety— keeping in mind both humans and the environment—can minimise contamination risks. For instance, a Seattle-based company, Ultra Safe Nuclear Technologies (USNC-Tech), claims to have designed an NTP engine that could protect the crew from being exposed to radioactive particles during the flight. • Maturing technologies associated with fuel production, fuel element manufacturing and testing. NASA is presently looking at systems that use low-enriched uranium as using low-enriched uranium could be less impactful on budget and schedule due to the reduction of handling and security regulations. • Pursuing multiple study paths to evaluate the cost/benefits and route to execute a NTP Flight Demonstration Project along with detailed cost analysis. • Establishing international cooperation and collaboration: An efficient way to facilitate space nuclear power development is to organize international programmes that use the best achievements of the participating countries. o Possible international cooperative efforts include a nuclear-powered probe for missions to the outer planets of the solar system and a manned mission to Mars. Conclusion With plans of setting up a space station, and launching the first Indian human space flight mission, Gaganyaan; the first Indian solar observatory, Aditya L-1; the second Indian space telescope XPoSat; Mangalyaan-2 to Mars; Page 3 72 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE MISSIONS Why in News? Recently, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) invited proposals for the three-phase development of a 100-Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). More on the News • The centre envisions using Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) for power generation and thermal management of ISRO’s deep space missions. • RTG is a type of Nuclear-based power system that is generally used for power generation and thermal management of space missions. Types of Nuclear Power Systems (NPS) with application in Space missions • Radioisotope power systems (RPSs): They are a type of nuclear energy technology that uses heat (produced by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium- 238) to produce electric power for operating spacecraft systems and science instruments. There are two types of radioisotope power systems: o Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU): Small devices that provide heat to keep a spacecraft’s electronic instruments and mechanical systems operational in the cold temperatures of our solar system. This heat is transferred to spacecraft structures, systems, and instruments directly, without moving parts or intervening electronic components. o Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): Flight-proven systems that provide power and heat to a spacecraft (see infographic). RTGs were first used in space during the Cold War in 1961 for the US’s Transit-4A Mission. • Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Nuclear power can be used for a rocket propulsion system. NASA is currently working on development of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, which are powered by Nuclear Fission. o NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core. Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. o This physical process heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust. o NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed to leave the Earth's surface. Instead, they will be launched into space by chemical rockets before they are turned on. 73 Associated Benefits with use of Nuclear Technology in Space • RTGs are highly reliable and maintenance-free: The absence of moving parts in thermocouples reduces the chances of failure and wear out. • Enable deep space and interplanetary travel: Nuclear-propelled rockets are more fuel efficient and lighter than chemical rockets. Hence, they would travel further, are faster, and would shorten the trip time. o This would also prove beneficial for human space travel as the astronauts’ exposure to harmful space radiations would be lessened, thereby, decreasing the mission’s overall risk. o Also, it would make interplanetary travel easier. First generation NTP systems could cut total mission duration in half, while still leaving adequate time for Mars surface exploration. • RTGs as an alternative to solar power: Solar power is not an option for space objects meant to operate on the dark sides of celestial objects where sunlight is obscured or those sent to far off missions away from the sun. For example, Saturn is about ten times farther from the sun than Earth, and the available sunlight there is only one percent, of what we receive at Earth. • Flexible launch windows: RTGs are independent of solar proximity and planetary alignment. This characteristic would help in minimising constraints like the ‘launch windows’ that the scientists have to operate within. • Continuous operation over long-duration space missions: RPS function largely independent of changes in sunlight, temperature, charged particle radiation, or surface conditions like thick clouds or dust. Way forward • Maintaining highest standards of safety— keeping in mind both humans and the environment—can minimise contamination risks. For instance, a Seattle-based company, Ultra Safe Nuclear Technologies (USNC-Tech), claims to have designed an NTP engine that could protect the crew from being exposed to radioactive particles during the flight. • Maturing technologies associated with fuel production, fuel element manufacturing and testing. NASA is presently looking at systems that use low-enriched uranium as using low-enriched uranium could be less impactful on budget and schedule due to the reduction of handling and security regulations. • Pursuing multiple study paths to evaluate the cost/benefits and route to execute a NTP Flight Demonstration Project along with detailed cost analysis. • Establishing international cooperation and collaboration: An efficient way to facilitate space nuclear power development is to organize international programmes that use the best achievements of the participating countries. o Possible international cooperative efforts include a nuclear-powered probe for missions to the outer planets of the solar system and a manned mission to Mars. Conclusion With plans of setting up a space station, and launching the first Indian human space flight mission, Gaganyaan; the first Indian solar observatory, Aditya L-1; the second Indian space telescope XPoSat; Mangalyaan-2 to Mars; 74 Chandrayaan-3 as a reattempt to land on the Moon; and the Venus orbiter mission Shukrayaan; ISRO has embarked on a monumental journey of exploring remote and challenging environments. Against this backdrop, the decision to invest in RTG and nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) appears inevitable. 7.2. ARTEMIS ACCORDS Why in news Recently, New Zealand became the 11 th Country to sign the Artemis accords. About the Artemis Accords • It was announced by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the U.S. civil space agency, in 2020. • It is a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the Moon. This agreement is for lunar exploration and beyond, with participation of both international partners and commercial players. • The accords describe a shared vision for principles, grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 to create a safe and transparent environment. • Signatories: US, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, and Ukraine. • Major space players like India, Russia, China, France and Germany are not a signatory of the accord. The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. Factors that may prompt India to sign the Artemis Accords • Enhanced space cooperation among Quad countries: The US, Japan and Australia are already signatories of the accords. Thus, accords could be considered as a natural extension of the Quad’s Critical and Emerging Technologies Working Group. India’s addition to the accords would provide a framework for space cooperation among these Quad countries. o India is also collaborating with Japan on a future lunar mission, called LUPEX, to the Moon’s surface. • Attracting more investments: By being a part of the accords, India’s space companies could become part of a global supply chain. This would also help attract investment capital towards Indian space startups. • Opportunities to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight: In the 1960s and 1970s, India took help from western countries such as the US and the UK to better understand sounding-rocket and satellite technologies. The Artemis Accords provide a similar opportunity to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight. Challenges that India faces in signing the Artemis accords • Reinforcing US Hegemony: The US promotion of the accords outside of the “normal” channels of international space law is a cause of consternation for some Countries. Related Information The Artemis Programme • It is the latest endeavor in boosting human space exploration by NASA. • The mission will see the arrival of the first woman and next man to the surface of the Moon in 2024. International principles governing the exploration of the Moon • The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration which facilitates exploration, science, and commercial activities for all of humanity to enjoy. India ratified the treaty in 1982. • The Moon Agreement of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. Only 18 countries signed the agreement, including India and France. o US, Russia and China have not signed the agreement. Page 4 72 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE MISSIONS Why in News? Recently, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) invited proposals for the three-phase development of a 100-Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). More on the News • The centre envisions using Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) for power generation and thermal management of ISRO’s deep space missions. • RTG is a type of Nuclear-based power system that is generally used for power generation and thermal management of space missions. Types of Nuclear Power Systems (NPS) with application in Space missions • Radioisotope power systems (RPSs): They are a type of nuclear energy technology that uses heat (produced by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium- 238) to produce electric power for operating spacecraft systems and science instruments. There are two types of radioisotope power systems: o Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU): Small devices that provide heat to keep a spacecraft’s electronic instruments and mechanical systems operational in the cold temperatures of our solar system. This heat is transferred to spacecraft structures, systems, and instruments directly, without moving parts or intervening electronic components. o Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): Flight-proven systems that provide power and heat to a spacecraft (see infographic). RTGs were first used in space during the Cold War in 1961 for the US’s Transit-4A Mission. • Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Nuclear power can be used for a rocket propulsion system. NASA is currently working on development of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, which are powered by Nuclear Fission. o NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core. Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. o This physical process heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust. o NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed to leave the Earth's surface. Instead, they will be launched into space by chemical rockets before they are turned on. 73 Associated Benefits with use of Nuclear Technology in Space • RTGs are highly reliable and maintenance-free: The absence of moving parts in thermocouples reduces the chances of failure and wear out. • Enable deep space and interplanetary travel: Nuclear-propelled rockets are more fuel efficient and lighter than chemical rockets. Hence, they would travel further, are faster, and would shorten the trip time. o This would also prove beneficial for human space travel as the astronauts’ exposure to harmful space radiations would be lessened, thereby, decreasing the mission’s overall risk. o Also, it would make interplanetary travel easier. First generation NTP systems could cut total mission duration in half, while still leaving adequate time for Mars surface exploration. • RTGs as an alternative to solar power: Solar power is not an option for space objects meant to operate on the dark sides of celestial objects where sunlight is obscured or those sent to far off missions away from the sun. For example, Saturn is about ten times farther from the sun than Earth, and the available sunlight there is only one percent, of what we receive at Earth. • Flexible launch windows: RTGs are independent of solar proximity and planetary alignment. This characteristic would help in minimising constraints like the ‘launch windows’ that the scientists have to operate within. • Continuous operation over long-duration space missions: RPS function largely independent of changes in sunlight, temperature, charged particle radiation, or surface conditions like thick clouds or dust. Way forward • Maintaining highest standards of safety— keeping in mind both humans and the environment—can minimise contamination risks. For instance, a Seattle-based company, Ultra Safe Nuclear Technologies (USNC-Tech), claims to have designed an NTP engine that could protect the crew from being exposed to radioactive particles during the flight. • Maturing technologies associated with fuel production, fuel element manufacturing and testing. NASA is presently looking at systems that use low-enriched uranium as using low-enriched uranium could be less impactful on budget and schedule due to the reduction of handling and security regulations. • Pursuing multiple study paths to evaluate the cost/benefits and route to execute a NTP Flight Demonstration Project along with detailed cost analysis. • Establishing international cooperation and collaboration: An efficient way to facilitate space nuclear power development is to organize international programmes that use the best achievements of the participating countries. o Possible international cooperative efforts include a nuclear-powered probe for missions to the outer planets of the solar system and a manned mission to Mars. Conclusion With plans of setting up a space station, and launching the first Indian human space flight mission, Gaganyaan; the first Indian solar observatory, Aditya L-1; the second Indian space telescope XPoSat; Mangalyaan-2 to Mars; 74 Chandrayaan-3 as a reattempt to land on the Moon; and the Venus orbiter mission Shukrayaan; ISRO has embarked on a monumental journey of exploring remote and challenging environments. Against this backdrop, the decision to invest in RTG and nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) appears inevitable. 7.2. ARTEMIS ACCORDS Why in news Recently, New Zealand became the 11 th Country to sign the Artemis accords. About the Artemis Accords • It was announced by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the U.S. civil space agency, in 2020. • It is a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the Moon. This agreement is for lunar exploration and beyond, with participation of both international partners and commercial players. • The accords describe a shared vision for principles, grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 to create a safe and transparent environment. • Signatories: US, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, and Ukraine. • Major space players like India, Russia, China, France and Germany are not a signatory of the accord. The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. Factors that may prompt India to sign the Artemis Accords • Enhanced space cooperation among Quad countries: The US, Japan and Australia are already signatories of the accords. Thus, accords could be considered as a natural extension of the Quad’s Critical and Emerging Technologies Working Group. India’s addition to the accords would provide a framework for space cooperation among these Quad countries. o India is also collaborating with Japan on a future lunar mission, called LUPEX, to the Moon’s surface. • Attracting more investments: By being a part of the accords, India’s space companies could become part of a global supply chain. This would also help attract investment capital towards Indian space startups. • Opportunities to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight: In the 1960s and 1970s, India took help from western countries such as the US and the UK to better understand sounding-rocket and satellite technologies. The Artemis Accords provide a similar opportunity to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight. Challenges that India faces in signing the Artemis accords • Reinforcing US Hegemony: The US promotion of the accords outside of the “normal” channels of international space law is a cause of consternation for some Countries. Related Information The Artemis Programme • It is the latest endeavor in boosting human space exploration by NASA. • The mission will see the arrival of the first woman and next man to the surface of the Moon in 2024. International principles governing the exploration of the Moon • The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration which facilitates exploration, science, and commercial activities for all of humanity to enjoy. India ratified the treaty in 1982. • The Moon Agreement of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. Only 18 countries signed the agreement, including India and France. o US, Russia and China have not signed the agreement. 75 Initiatives taken to eradicate NTDs • WHO’s new road map for 2021–2030 calls for three strategic shifts to end NTDs: o From measuring process to measuring impact. o From disease-specific planning and programming to collaborative work across sectors. o From externally driven agendas reliant to programmes that are country-owned and country-financed. • WHO’s first road map for the prevention and control of NTDs was published in 2012. • WHO recommends five public-health interventions to accelerate the prevention, control, elimination and eradication of NTDs: o Preventive chemotherapy – the large-scale delivery of free and safe, single-dose, quality-assured medicines, either alone or in combination, at regular intervals to treat selected diseases; o Innovative and intensified disease management – the management of diseases that are difficult to diagnose and treat and which can, in most cases, trigger severe clinical manifestations and complications; o Vector control and pesticide management – the safe and judicious management of public-health pesticides to achieve vector control through integrated vector management; o Safe drinking-water, basic sanitation and hygiene services, and education – the prioritization of improved sanitation combined with delivering preventive chemotherapy and health education to sustain reductions in prevalence of many of these diseases; o Zoonotic disease management – the application of veterinary sciences and interventions to protect and improve human health. • END7, an international public awareness campaign with a mission to see the end of seven neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) by 2020. o Seven NTDs are lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), river blindness (onchocerciasis), snail fever (schistosomiasis), trachoma, hookworm, whipworm (trichuriasis) and roundworm (ascaraisis) which account for 90% of the global NTD burden. • Bangladesh, India, and Nepal launched an initiative to eliminate kala- azar as a public health problem in 2005. • Harbinger of change in space governance: The accords are bilateral agreements and not binding instruments of international law. But, by establishing practice in the area, they could have a significant influence on any subsequent governance framework for human settlements on Mars and beyond. • Diplomatic challenges: India has had a traditional partnership with Russia, which recently partnered with China in its International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) initiative. Russia might invite India to join, but on the other hand, growing assertiveness of China is likely to prevent any meaningful association of India with ILRS. • Focus on indigenous programmes may be compromised: There are fears about what might happen to the indigenous programme if India were to participate in the Artemis Accords. Way ahead: India’s decision to sign the Artemis accords, or for that matter any other bilateral space agreements, should completely be based on the merits of the proposal i.e. whether proposals meet India’s expectations or not. All such decisions could be complemented with following initiatives • Confidence building with the US: Working together on the Chandrayaan-1 and NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) missions have helped to build confidence in each other. These could be the stepping stones for India to sign the accords themselves. • Strategic balance with Russia: India’s signing up for the accords must not be equated to severing ties with Russia. India has maintained a balanced relationship with the US as well as Russia in other strategic areas and the same could apply for space after India signs the accords as well. • Pursuing Indigenous programmes: India should encourage the involvement of the private sector in communications and Earth-observation satellites construction and launch and should also outline its priorities for interplanetary and human spaceflight missions and actively pursue them. 7.3. NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES Why in News? Accepting the proposal of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), 74th World Health Assembly declared January 30 as ‘World Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) Day’ About Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) • NTD are communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and subtropical countries and affect more than one billion people. • Populations living in poverty, without adequate sanitation and in close contact with infectious vectors and domestic animals and livestock are those worst affected. o Worldwide, 149 countries and territories are affected by at least one neglected tropical disease. • India experiences the world’s largest absolute burden of at least 11 major NTD (2018), though India has already eliminated several NTDs, including guinea worm, trachoma, and yaws. Page 5 72 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE MISSIONS Why in News? Recently, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) invited proposals for the three-phase development of a 100-Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). More on the News • The centre envisions using Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) for power generation and thermal management of ISRO’s deep space missions. • RTG is a type of Nuclear-based power system that is generally used for power generation and thermal management of space missions. Types of Nuclear Power Systems (NPS) with application in Space missions • Radioisotope power systems (RPSs): They are a type of nuclear energy technology that uses heat (produced by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium- 238) to produce electric power for operating spacecraft systems and science instruments. There are two types of radioisotope power systems: o Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU): Small devices that provide heat to keep a spacecraft’s electronic instruments and mechanical systems operational in the cold temperatures of our solar system. This heat is transferred to spacecraft structures, systems, and instruments directly, without moving parts or intervening electronic components. o Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): Flight-proven systems that provide power and heat to a spacecraft (see infographic). RTGs were first used in space during the Cold War in 1961 for the US’s Transit-4A Mission. • Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Nuclear power can be used for a rocket propulsion system. NASA is currently working on development of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, which are powered by Nuclear Fission. o NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core. Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. o This physical process heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust. o NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed to leave the Earth's surface. Instead, they will be launched into space by chemical rockets before they are turned on. 73 Associated Benefits with use of Nuclear Technology in Space • RTGs are highly reliable and maintenance-free: The absence of moving parts in thermocouples reduces the chances of failure and wear out. • Enable deep space and interplanetary travel: Nuclear-propelled rockets are more fuel efficient and lighter than chemical rockets. Hence, they would travel further, are faster, and would shorten the trip time. o This would also prove beneficial for human space travel as the astronauts’ exposure to harmful space radiations would be lessened, thereby, decreasing the mission’s overall risk. o Also, it would make interplanetary travel easier. First generation NTP systems could cut total mission duration in half, while still leaving adequate time for Mars surface exploration. • RTGs as an alternative to solar power: Solar power is not an option for space objects meant to operate on the dark sides of celestial objects where sunlight is obscured or those sent to far off missions away from the sun. For example, Saturn is about ten times farther from the sun than Earth, and the available sunlight there is only one percent, of what we receive at Earth. • Flexible launch windows: RTGs are independent of solar proximity and planetary alignment. This characteristic would help in minimising constraints like the ‘launch windows’ that the scientists have to operate within. • Continuous operation over long-duration space missions: RPS function largely independent of changes in sunlight, temperature, charged particle radiation, or surface conditions like thick clouds or dust. Way forward • Maintaining highest standards of safety— keeping in mind both humans and the environment—can minimise contamination risks. For instance, a Seattle-based company, Ultra Safe Nuclear Technologies (USNC-Tech), claims to have designed an NTP engine that could protect the crew from being exposed to radioactive particles during the flight. • Maturing technologies associated with fuel production, fuel element manufacturing and testing. NASA is presently looking at systems that use low-enriched uranium as using low-enriched uranium could be less impactful on budget and schedule due to the reduction of handling and security regulations. • Pursuing multiple study paths to evaluate the cost/benefits and route to execute a NTP Flight Demonstration Project along with detailed cost analysis. • Establishing international cooperation and collaboration: An efficient way to facilitate space nuclear power development is to organize international programmes that use the best achievements of the participating countries. o Possible international cooperative efforts include a nuclear-powered probe for missions to the outer planets of the solar system and a manned mission to Mars. Conclusion With plans of setting up a space station, and launching the first Indian human space flight mission, Gaganyaan; the first Indian solar observatory, Aditya L-1; the second Indian space telescope XPoSat; Mangalyaan-2 to Mars; 74 Chandrayaan-3 as a reattempt to land on the Moon; and the Venus orbiter mission Shukrayaan; ISRO has embarked on a monumental journey of exploring remote and challenging environments. Against this backdrop, the decision to invest in RTG and nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) appears inevitable. 7.2. ARTEMIS ACCORDS Why in news Recently, New Zealand became the 11 th Country to sign the Artemis accords. About the Artemis Accords • It was announced by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the U.S. civil space agency, in 2020. • It is a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the Moon. This agreement is for lunar exploration and beyond, with participation of both international partners and commercial players. • The accords describe a shared vision for principles, grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 to create a safe and transparent environment. • Signatories: US, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, and Ukraine. • Major space players like India, Russia, China, France and Germany are not a signatory of the accord. The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. Factors that may prompt India to sign the Artemis Accords • Enhanced space cooperation among Quad countries: The US, Japan and Australia are already signatories of the accords. Thus, accords could be considered as a natural extension of the Quad’s Critical and Emerging Technologies Working Group. India’s addition to the accords would provide a framework for space cooperation among these Quad countries. o India is also collaborating with Japan on a future lunar mission, called LUPEX, to the Moon’s surface. • Attracting more investments: By being a part of the accords, India’s space companies could become part of a global supply chain. This would also help attract investment capital towards Indian space startups. • Opportunities to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight: In the 1960s and 1970s, India took help from western countries such as the US and the UK to better understand sounding-rocket and satellite technologies. The Artemis Accords provide a similar opportunity to learn about interplanetary missions and human spaceflight. Challenges that India faces in signing the Artemis accords • Reinforcing US Hegemony: The US promotion of the accords outside of the “normal” channels of international space law is a cause of consternation for some Countries. Related Information The Artemis Programme • It is the latest endeavor in boosting human space exploration by NASA. • The mission will see the arrival of the first woman and next man to the surface of the Moon in 2024. International principles governing the exploration of the Moon • The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration which facilitates exploration, science, and commercial activities for all of humanity to enjoy. India ratified the treaty in 1982. • The Moon Agreement of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. Only 18 countries signed the agreement, including India and France. o US, Russia and China have not signed the agreement. 75 Initiatives taken to eradicate NTDs • WHO’s new road map for 2021–2030 calls for three strategic shifts to end NTDs: o From measuring process to measuring impact. o From disease-specific planning and programming to collaborative work across sectors. o From externally driven agendas reliant to programmes that are country-owned and country-financed. • WHO’s first road map for the prevention and control of NTDs was published in 2012. • WHO recommends five public-health interventions to accelerate the prevention, control, elimination and eradication of NTDs: o Preventive chemotherapy – the large-scale delivery of free and safe, single-dose, quality-assured medicines, either alone or in combination, at regular intervals to treat selected diseases; o Innovative and intensified disease management – the management of diseases that are difficult to diagnose and treat and which can, in most cases, trigger severe clinical manifestations and complications; o Vector control and pesticide management – the safe and judicious management of public-health pesticides to achieve vector control through integrated vector management; o Safe drinking-water, basic sanitation and hygiene services, and education – the prioritization of improved sanitation combined with delivering preventive chemotherapy and health education to sustain reductions in prevalence of many of these diseases; o Zoonotic disease management – the application of veterinary sciences and interventions to protect and improve human health. • END7, an international public awareness campaign with a mission to see the end of seven neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) by 2020. o Seven NTDs are lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), river blindness (onchocerciasis), snail fever (schistosomiasis), trachoma, hookworm, whipworm (trichuriasis) and roundworm (ascaraisis) which account for 90% of the global NTD burden. • Bangladesh, India, and Nepal launched an initiative to eliminate kala- azar as a public health problem in 2005. • Harbinger of change in space governance: The accords are bilateral agreements and not binding instruments of international law. But, by establishing practice in the area, they could have a significant influence on any subsequent governance framework for human settlements on Mars and beyond. • Diplomatic challenges: India has had a traditional partnership with Russia, which recently partnered with China in its International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) initiative. Russia might invite India to join, but on the other hand, growing assertiveness of China is likely to prevent any meaningful association of India with ILRS. • Focus on indigenous programmes may be compromised: There are fears about what might happen to the indigenous programme if India were to participate in the Artemis Accords. Way ahead: India’s decision to sign the Artemis accords, or for that matter any other bilateral space agreements, should completely be based on the merits of the proposal i.e. whether proposals meet India’s expectations or not. All such decisions could be complemented with following initiatives • Confidence building with the US: Working together on the Chandrayaan-1 and NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) missions have helped to build confidence in each other. These could be the stepping stones for India to sign the accords themselves. • Strategic balance with Russia: India’s signing up for the accords must not be equated to severing ties with Russia. India has maintained a balanced relationship with the US as well as Russia in other strategic areas and the same could apply for space after India signs the accords as well. • Pursuing Indigenous programmes: India should encourage the involvement of the private sector in communications and Earth-observation satellites construction and launch and should also outline its priorities for interplanetary and human spaceflight missions and actively pursue them. 7.3. NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES Why in News? Accepting the proposal of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), 74th World Health Assembly declared January 30 as ‘World Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) Day’ About Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) • NTD are communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and subtropical countries and affect more than one billion people. • Populations living in poverty, without adequate sanitation and in close contact with infectious vectors and domestic animals and livestock are those worst affected. o Worldwide, 149 countries and territories are affected by at least one neglected tropical disease. • India experiences the world’s largest absolute burden of at least 11 major NTD (2018), though India has already eliminated several NTDs, including guinea worm, trachoma, and yaws. 76 Impact of NTDs • Affecting the world’s poorest people: NTDs overload already stretched health systems in developing countries, and some of them can lead to catastrophic expenditures and can reduce individual productivity. • On children’s health: Some disease impair physical and cognitive development amongst children as infection leads to malnutrition, cognitive impairment, stunted growth, and the inability to attend school. • On Women's Health: Some diseases with cutaneous manifestations are disfiguring, particularly for women, because they delay health-seeking behaviour, diagnosis and treatment. o They affect women's social health by promoting exclusion and stigma. And they affect women's economic health, by affecting women's ability to work. Challenges in tackling NTD • Lack of prioritized efforts: NTD, are referred to as “neglected” because they are characterized by little attention from policy-makers, lack of priority within health strategies, inadequate research, limited resource allocation and few interventions. o These diseases generally receive less funding for research and treatment than malaises like tuberculosis, HIV-AIDS and malaria. • Non availability of treatments: For many NTDs, there are no vaccines or simple tests to ensure timely diagnosis and treatment, and treatments can be toxic, ineffective, and costly. • Prevalence of Social stigma: Preventing stigma and discrimination is a remaining challenge, along with the social displacement of people affected by NTDs. Way forward • Resource mobilization, public–private partnerships and community mobilization are important and must be prioritized. o If the global community could focus on India’s NTD problem and make inroads, it would substantially reduce the burden of NTD. • Effective surveillance and monitoring are urgently needed, together with an evaluation system for tracking progress on a regular basis. • Regular briefing of the media can increase community involvement in elimination programmes, reduce stigma and discrimination. • Development of community-based programmes for the rehabilitation of disabled persons and their reintegration into their communities. 7.4. MUCORMYCOSIS Why in News? As cases of Mucormycosis or Black Fungus cases have started rising some states declared it as epidemic under Epidemic Diseases Act 1897. About Mucormycosis • Mucormycosis, as defined by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), is a fungal infection that mainly affects people who are on medication for other health problems that reduces their ability to fight pathogens. • It has been commonly called as black fungus because it causes the tissue affected to necrose and turn into black. • Previously called zygomycosis, it is a serious but rare fungal infection caused by a group of molds called mucormycetes.Read More
![]() |
Use Code STAYHOME200 and get INR 200 additional OFF
|
Use Coupon Code |
86 videos|239 docs|231 tests
|