Were the revolutions of 1848 important? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Introduction

• The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were part of a broader wave of revolutions that swept across Europe. New ideas sparked reforms in the Papal States, leading to organized revolts in various regions of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily.
• Although there were some small victories during the Italian revolutions, they were overshadowed by the overall failure to achieve independence from foreign domination and expel the Austrians. Despite this, the revolutions set the stage for the eventual unification of Italy in the following decades.

Overview of the Revolutions of 1848

• In 1848 and early 1849, Europe experienced a widespread revolutionary wave known as the Springtime of Nations or the Year of Revolution.
• Protests spread across more than fifty countries, with significant revolutions in France, the German Confederation states, Italy, and the Austrian Empire.
• The uprisings were driven by factors like dissatisfaction with governance, neglect by monarchs, and the rise of new ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, and socialism.
• The revolutions aimed at reforming the middle and working classes but mostly ended in failure, allowing conservatives to regain power.
• However, they did lead to substantial reforms in various European countries.

Features of the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy

• Italy experienced significant upheavals during the revolutions of 1848.
• The events in Italy were part of a broader European wave of revolutions.
• Factors such as dissatisfaction with governance and the desire for reform were key drivers in Italy's revolution.
• New ideas like nationalism and liberalism influenced the revolutionary movements in Italy.
• The revolutions in Italy, although ultimately unsuccessful, paved the way for future reforms in the country.
• At the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy:
  • Italy was divided into separate kingdoms, duchies, and states, facing foreign dominance from the Austrians in the north and the Bourbons in the south.
  • The Pope controlled the Papal States in central Italy.
  • Economic depression, caused by crop failures and widespread unemployment, affected Italy.
  • The desire to unify Italy was driven by emerging new ideas, leading to the Revolutions of 1848.
• Aims of the Revolutions in Italy:
  • Break away from the conservative leadership of the Austrians.
  • Create a united and independent state.
• Significant Figures of the Revolutions:
  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini, originating from Genoa, played a pivotal role in advocating for the unification of Italy. He was not only a writer but also the founder of a republican organization called Young Italy, which significantly contributed to the spread of liberal ideas.
  • Pope Pius IX: In 1846, Pope Pius IX succeeded his conservative predecessor. He made a bold move by granting amnesty to political prisoners and exiles of the Papal States, portraying himself as a progressive figure within the papacy.
  • Charles Albert: Charles Albert, the liberal monarch of Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia, Nice, and Savoy, possessed the necessary potential and resources to establish a formidable army capable of challenging the Austrians.
  • Klemens von Metternich: As the Austrian foreign minister, Klemens von Metternich perceived Italian nationalism and liberalism as direct threats to the stability of the Austrian Empire.
  • Joseph Radetzky von Radetz: Joseph Radetzky von Radetz assumed the role of the Austrian general tasked with leading the military campaign against the Italian revolutionaries.

The Uprising of Revolts in Italy

• The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were sparked by the liberal changes seen in Rome following the election of a new pope. Beginning in Sicily, the movement spread to other parts of Italy, including Lombardy-Venetia, Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States.
• On January 12, 1848, the people of Sicily demanded a provisional government independent of the mainland. The nobles advocated for the restoration of the 1812 constitution, emphasizing representative democracy and parliamentary centrality. Initially resisted by Ferdinand II of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, these changes were eventually implemented following revolts in Salerno and Naples.
• The king reluctantly granted a constitution allowing for an elected chamber of deputies but retained unlimited power and authority. Although the idea of forming a confederation of all Italian states was proposed by the Sicilian Parliament, it did not materialize that year.

• In Milan, an anti-Austrian campaign began in early January but was suppressed by Austrian troops led by General Radetzky. Harsher taxes led to renewed protests on March 18 after news of the Vienna uprising and the fall of Klemens von Metternich reached the city, leading to the "Five Days of Milan." Backed by the clergy, the people formed barricades, urging rural participation and demonstrating Italian unity, leading to the formation of a provisional government in Milan.
• Prior to the uprisings in Milan, other rulers in Italy, following Ferdinand II's lead, granted constitutions. Leopold II of Tuscany enacted the Tuscan Constitution of 1848 on February 17, Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia proclaimed the Statuto Albertino on March 4, and Pope Pius IX conceded The Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church on March 14.
• In contrast, the Austrian Empire refused to yield to popular pressure and instead suppressed opposition in Venice and Milan, as well as student demonstrations in university cities like Padua and Pavia. However, the Radetzky-led Austrian army suffered significant losses in Lombardy-Venetia shortly after the Five Days of Milan and retreated into the Quadrilateral fortress.
• Charles Albert gained popularity as a liberal monarch willing to relinquish power for the people's welfare. Despite the risks, Albert declared war on Austria on March 23. With widespread support, he led the attack on the Quadrilateral fortress from all sides and received additional support from fellow princes who pledged reinforcements.
• Leopold II, Pope Pius IX, and Ferdinand II sent troops to aid the Piedmontese army, contributing to the Austrian defeat and the capture of Peschiera at the Battle of Goito. While the Piedmontese initially enjoyed victories, the tide eventually turned in favor of the Austrians.
• Concerned about a religious rift between Austria and Rome, the Pope withdrew his troops from the warfront, with Tuscany and Naples following suit. These actions weakened the position of the revolutionaries in Piedmont and Lombardy, as well as the popularity of the Pope in the Papal States. On August 9, Albert was compelled to sign a truce with Austria, known as the Salasco armistice, leading to the abandonment of Lombardy by his army and the return of the Austrians to the region.
• In the Papal States, Count Pellegrino Rossi was appointed by the Pope in September to oversee the government, but his biased reforms led to his assassination in November, which was celebrated by the people in Rome. The Pope fled to Gaeta in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
• With no local government in Rome, leaders called for an Assembly to be elected on universal manhood suffrage. Giuseppe Mazzini, elected to the Assembly, seized the opportunity to establish a new Roman Republic and assumed office in February 1849.
• Under Mazzini's influence, taxes were abolished, freedom of religion was established, and a large contingent of troops was sent to aid Albert in his fight against the Austrian Empire. However, these actions proved counterproductive as they eliminated a major source of income and left Rome vulnerable to attack due to insufficient troops.
• On March 12, 1849, Albert denounced the truce with Austria, but despite support from Roman troops, he failed to defend Piedmont against the Austrian army at the Battle of Novara. He abdicated in favor of his eldest son, while preserving the Statuto.
• Following the Battle of Novara, the Austrians demanded the surrender of Venice, which initially resisted but eventually surrendered on August 22 after suffering damage and famine. Additionally, a few months earlier, the Papal States came under French control, aimed at restoring the Pope, effectively ending the Roman Republic.