Why was there a civil war in the United States and what were its results? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Civil War in the United States

• The Civil War in the United States commenced in 1861 following prolonged tensions between northern and southern states concerning slavery, states' rights, and westward expansion. 
• Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 prompted seven southern states to secede, leading to the formation of the Confederate States of America, with four more states joining shortly after. Termed the War Between the States, the Civil War concluded in Confederate surrender in 1865. 
• It stands as the most costly and deadly conflict fought on American soil, resulting in around 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers losing their lives, numerous others sustaining injuries, and significant destruction in the South.

Causes of the Civil War

• During the mid-19th century, the United States underwent significant growth, yet a fundamental economic contrast prevailed between its northern and southern regions.
• In the North, manufacturing and industry thrived, with agriculture primarily consisting of small-scale farms. Conversely, the South's economy relied heavily on large-scale farming, particularly of crops like cotton and tobacco, which was sustained by the labor of enslaved Black people.
• In the 1830s, a rising abolitionist sentiment in the North and opposition to slavery's expansion into new western territories caused concern among many southerners. They feared that the institution of slavery, crucial to their economy, was under threat.
• In 1854, the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed slavery in new territories through popular sovereignty rather than congressional mandate. This sparked violent clashes between pro- and anti-slavery factions in "Bleeding Kansas." Additionally, opposition in the North led to the formation of the Republican Party, which opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories.
• The Supreme Court's decision in the Dred Scott case (1857), affirming the legality of slavery in the territories, further fueled tensions. John Brown's raid at Harper's Ferry in 1859 intensified southern fears that the North aimed to abolish the institution of slavery.
• Abraham Lincoln's election in November 1860 was viewed by many southerners as a threat, leading to the secession of seven southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas—from the United States within three months.

Outbreak of the Civil War (1861)

• Confederate Attack on Fort Sumter: In March 1861, as Abraham Lincoln assumed office, Confederate forces posed a threat to Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. When Lincoln directed a fleet to resupply the fort, Confederate artillery initiated the first shots of the Civil War on April 12. Major Robert Anderson, the fort's commander, surrendered after a brief bombardment, handing control to Confederate forces led by Pierre G.T. Beauregard.
• Expansion of the Confederacy: Following the fall of Fort Sumter, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee joined the Confederacy. Although border states like Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland did not secede, there was significant Confederate sympathy among their populace.
• Disparity in Resources: Despite the Union's substantial advantages in population, manufacturing, and infrastructure, the Confederates possessed a robust military tradition. They boasted skilled soldiers, adept commanders, and a fervent commitment to preserving their traditional institutions, notably slavery.
• First Battle of Bull Run: The initial major engagement, the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as First Manassas), occurred on July 21, 1861. Confederate forces under Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson compelled a larger Union army to retreat towards Washington, D.C. This outcome shattered hopes of a swift Union triumph, prompting Lincoln to call for an additional 500,000 troops. Both sides had to escalate their recruitment efforts as the conflict proved to be more protracted and intense than initially anticipated.

The Civil War in Virginia (1862)

• Background: George B. McClellan took over as the Union Army's supreme commander during the Civil War. Despite his popularity among troops, his cautious approach displeased President Lincoln.
• McClellan's Peninsula Campaign: In the spring of 1862, McClellan led the Army of the Potomac up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers. He captured Yorktown on May 4.
• The Seven Days' Battles: Robert E. Lee and Jackson successfully pushed back McClellan's forces during this series of battles in June and July. McClellan, in turn, called for more reinforcements to advance towards Richmond.
• Change in Leadership: By mid-1862, McClellan was replaced as Union general-in-chief by Henry W. Halleck, though he continued to lead the Army of the Potomac.
• Confederate Advances: Lee's troops moved north, engaging Union forces. Jackson confronted Pope near Manassas, while Lee led the other half of the army separately.
• The Second Battle of Bull Run: On August 29, Union troops clashed with Jackson's forces in this battle. Lee's decisive assault the next day forced Pope's men back towards Washington.
• Lee's Invasion of the North: Following his victory at Manassas, Lee initiated the first Confederate invasion of the North, despite conflicting orders from Lincoln and Halleck.
• The Battle of Antietam: McClellan managed to organize his army and engage Lee in Maryland on September 14, leading to a Confederate retreat to a defensive position near Antietam Creek.

Battle of Antietam

• The Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, took place on September 17.
• It was the bloodiest single day of fighting during the Civil War.
• Total casualties numbered 12,410 for the Union out of around 69,000 troops and 13,724 for the Confederates out of approximately 52,000 troops.
• The Union victory at Antietam was crucial as it stopped the Confederate advance in Maryland, forcing General Lee to retreat into Virginia.

Leadership Changes

• General McClellan, despite the victory, faced criticism for not pursuing his advantage, leading to his removal from command.
• Ambrose E. Burnside replaced McClellan but suffered heavy casualties in an assault near Fredericksburg on December 13, resulting in a Confederate victory.
• Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker succeeded Burnside after the defeat, and both armies then settled into winter quarters along the Rappahannock River.

After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863-4)

• Emancipation Proclamation Overview: Following the Union victory at Antietam, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which declared the freedom of all enslaved individuals in the rebellious states from January 1, 1863 onward. This act was primarily a strategic wartime decision and did not extend to enslaved individuals in the border states loyal to the Union.
• Impact on the Confederacy: The Emancipation Proclamation significantly weakened the Confederacy by depriving it of a large portion of its labor force. Additionally, it garnered strong international support for the Union cause.
• Enlistment of Black Soldiers: Approximately 186,000 Black soldiers joined the Union Army during the Civil War. Tragically, 38,000 of them lost their lives in service.

Battles and Campaigns

• Battle of Chancellorsville: In the spring of 1863, General Hooker's Union offensive plans were disrupted by a surprise Confederate attack led by General Lee. The ensuing Battle of Chancellorsville resulted in significant casualties for both sides.
• Gettysburg and Vicksburg: In July 1863, General Lee attempted another invasion of the North but was repelled at Gettysburg, marking a turning point in the Eastern theater. Concurrently, the Union forces under General Grant achieved a crucial victory at Vicksburg, influencing the outcome of the war in the western theater.
• Battle of Chattanooga: Following a Confederate victory at Chickamauga Creek, President Lincoln expanded General Grant's command. Grant's leadership and the reinforced Federal army secured a decisive victory in the Battle of Chattanooga by late November.

Toward a Union Victory (1864-65)

• Grant's Supreme Command: In March 1864, President Lincoln assigned Grant as the supreme commander of the Union armies, replacing Halleck. Grant led the Army of the Potomac towards Lee's troops in northern Virginia.
• Grant's Strategy: Despite heavy casualties in battles like the Battle of the Wilderness and at Spotsylvania in May 1864, Grant pursued a strategy of attrition, particularly putting Petersburg under siege for the next nine months. For example, the siege of Petersburg was a key component of Grant's plan to wear down the Confederate forces through a prolonged campaign.
• Sherman's Campaigns: Sherman outmaneuvered Confederate forces to capture Atlanta by September. He then embarked on the famous "March to the Sea," devastating Georgia and capturing Savannah in December 1864. For instance, Sherman's capture of Atlanta was a strategic blow to the Confederacy, disrupting their supply lines and morale.
• End of the War: As the Union forces closed in on the Confederate strongholds, Lee's forces attempted a final resistance, culminating in the attacks and eventual surrender at Appomattox Court House in April 1865. One significant event was the assassination of President Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, at Ford's Theatre, which occurred on April 14, further marking the end of the war.