Methodology and Methods, Research Methods in Population Studies - BA PDF Download

 Page 1


Module 3 
Research Methods in Population Studies 
Lecture 7: Methodology and Methods 
 
Slide 1 
POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY 
 
Methodology refers to philosophy and logic of methods, methods to specific tools and techniques 
of research. Broadly speaking there are two methodologies in sociology: positivist and 
phenomenological. Positivists assume that the social phenomena can be studied using tools and 
techniques of science. For them objectivity and value neutrality are the hallmarks of science. 
Phenomenologists reject positivism and claim that human behaviour is not amenable to scientific 
treatment. In order to understand human behaviour sociologists must study subjective meanings 
and qualitative methodology is more suited for this.  
In the past social scientists working in the field of population studies in general and 
morbidity and mortality in particular placed greater importance on quantitative methods such as 
survey and analytical methods. The shift in attention to AIDS epidemic, sexuality and 
empowerment has led to major changes in methodology. The reason is that researchers working 
on HIV/AIDS have to deal not only with estimation of incidence and prevalence rates but they 
also must explore the social representations of the virus, phenomenological issues in counselling, 
testing and care, effective intervention strategies and related policy issues.   
 
THE DEBATE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 
 
Literature shows that in demography statistical modelling and advanced statistical methods are 
used more extensively. Demographers use latest versions of regression analysis, factor analysis 
and multidimensional scaling. In the recent times, however, there is a greater appreciation of 
qualitative methods.  
 
 
 
Page 2


Module 3 
Research Methods in Population Studies 
Lecture 7: Methodology and Methods 
 
Slide 1 
POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY 
 
Methodology refers to philosophy and logic of methods, methods to specific tools and techniques 
of research. Broadly speaking there are two methodologies in sociology: positivist and 
phenomenological. Positivists assume that the social phenomena can be studied using tools and 
techniques of science. For them objectivity and value neutrality are the hallmarks of science. 
Phenomenologists reject positivism and claim that human behaviour is not amenable to scientific 
treatment. In order to understand human behaviour sociologists must study subjective meanings 
and qualitative methodology is more suited for this.  
In the past social scientists working in the field of population studies in general and 
morbidity and mortality in particular placed greater importance on quantitative methods such as 
survey and analytical methods. The shift in attention to AIDS epidemic, sexuality and 
empowerment has led to major changes in methodology. The reason is that researchers working 
on HIV/AIDS have to deal not only with estimation of incidence and prevalence rates but they 
also must explore the social representations of the virus, phenomenological issues in counselling, 
testing and care, effective intervention strategies and related policy issues.   
 
THE DEBATE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 
 
Literature shows that in demography statistical modelling and advanced statistical methods are 
used more extensively. Demographers use latest versions of regression analysis, factor analysis 
and multidimensional scaling. In the recent times, however, there is a greater appreciation of 
qualitative methods.  
 
 
 
Slide 2 
Today in sociology in general and in population studies in particular, qualitative methods 
such as participatory rapid (or relaxed) appraisal, discourse analysis, narratives, case history 
methods, biographical methods are more in demand than the advance statistical techniques. 
Importance of qualitative methods is derived from greater appreciation of multiparadigmatic 
and shifting paradigmatic stances in various fields of social sciences, metatheoretical 
commitments, and growing popularity of postmodernism. All this also implies popular distrust of 
experts, importance of subjective and social representations, historical research, and 
empowerment. Social constructionism has diverted attention of researchers from exploring the 
causal connections to understanding of the “taken for granted knowledge".  .  
For a long time sociologists favoured one of the two approaches – statistical and qualitative - 
and took a rigid stand on the matter. A polarity between the quantitative and qualitative methods 
has emerged very clearly in the disciplines of sociology and psychology. While a large number 
of researchers, for example, believe that meaningful research cannot be carried out without 
employing statistical tools, an equally strong number of researchers seem to be absolutely 
dissatisfied with this approach. Historically sociologists and psychologists have always 
endeavoured to bring sociology and psychology at par with pure sciences. In part, this is also due 
to the deep impact of methodological behaviourism in contemporary psychology. However, for 
several years now social scientists have been critical of such an approach and view it as a major 
source of narrowness in research. A considered view would be that no particular method is 
essential to social science research in all circumstances. Which method should be used and 
whether several methods should be used in combination depends on the purpose and approach of 
the study. It may be noted that the differences between statistical methods and phenomenological 
methods are not on a continuum between extreme polls. They may be combined at various 
levels.  
 
 
Page 3


Module 3 
Research Methods in Population Studies 
Lecture 7: Methodology and Methods 
 
Slide 1 
POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY 
 
Methodology refers to philosophy and logic of methods, methods to specific tools and techniques 
of research. Broadly speaking there are two methodologies in sociology: positivist and 
phenomenological. Positivists assume that the social phenomena can be studied using tools and 
techniques of science. For them objectivity and value neutrality are the hallmarks of science. 
Phenomenologists reject positivism and claim that human behaviour is not amenable to scientific 
treatment. In order to understand human behaviour sociologists must study subjective meanings 
and qualitative methodology is more suited for this.  
In the past social scientists working in the field of population studies in general and 
morbidity and mortality in particular placed greater importance on quantitative methods such as 
survey and analytical methods. The shift in attention to AIDS epidemic, sexuality and 
empowerment has led to major changes in methodology. The reason is that researchers working 
on HIV/AIDS have to deal not only with estimation of incidence and prevalence rates but they 
also must explore the social representations of the virus, phenomenological issues in counselling, 
testing and care, effective intervention strategies and related policy issues.   
 
THE DEBATE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 
 
Literature shows that in demography statistical modelling and advanced statistical methods are 
used more extensively. Demographers use latest versions of regression analysis, factor analysis 
and multidimensional scaling. In the recent times, however, there is a greater appreciation of 
qualitative methods.  
 
 
 
Slide 2 
Today in sociology in general and in population studies in particular, qualitative methods 
such as participatory rapid (or relaxed) appraisal, discourse analysis, narratives, case history 
methods, biographical methods are more in demand than the advance statistical techniques. 
Importance of qualitative methods is derived from greater appreciation of multiparadigmatic 
and shifting paradigmatic stances in various fields of social sciences, metatheoretical 
commitments, and growing popularity of postmodernism. All this also implies popular distrust of 
experts, importance of subjective and social representations, historical research, and 
empowerment. Social constructionism has diverted attention of researchers from exploring the 
causal connections to understanding of the “taken for granted knowledge".  .  
For a long time sociologists favoured one of the two approaches – statistical and qualitative - 
and took a rigid stand on the matter. A polarity between the quantitative and qualitative methods 
has emerged very clearly in the disciplines of sociology and psychology. While a large number 
of researchers, for example, believe that meaningful research cannot be carried out without 
employing statistical tools, an equally strong number of researchers seem to be absolutely 
dissatisfied with this approach. Historically sociologists and psychologists have always 
endeavoured to bring sociology and psychology at par with pure sciences. In part, this is also due 
to the deep impact of methodological behaviourism in contemporary psychology. However, for 
several years now social scientists have been critical of such an approach and view it as a major 
source of narrowness in research. A considered view would be that no particular method is 
essential to social science research in all circumstances. Which method should be used and 
whether several methods should be used in combination depends on the purpose and approach of 
the study. It may be noted that the differences between statistical methods and phenomenological 
methods are not on a continuum between extreme polls. They may be combined at various 
levels.  
 
 
Slide 3 
STRENGTH OF STATISTICAL METHODS 
 
Statistical methods are useful for a variety of purposes. They are used for constructing scales, 
designing studies, describing data, exploring patterns, revealing dimensionality, and predicting 
social phenomena. They may also be combined with qualitative methodology. Statistical 
methods such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) have been used successfully in studies of 
social representations for which anthropology and social psychology have significantly 
contributed.  
Traditionally social sciences have always tried to be in line with the principles of natural 
sciences and have favoured exact and standardized scientific methodology. Social sciences have 
always considered quantitative methods as the only statistically valid and reliable methods of 
research. Using a deductive approach quantitative research yields statistically reliable results. 
The process of quantitative research is best suited for testing hypotheses. The obtained results are 
utilized for establishing causal relationships and making predictions. Quantitative research 
methods can be broadly classified under the four major categories:  
 
• Descriptive or survey research,  
• Correlational and causal research,  
• Experimental research.      
 
Positivists consider qualitative data as unreliable, ambiguous and doubtful. Yet, despite 
criticism and attack, the quantitative approach dominates social sciences.  Scintific observation is 
the keystone of social scientific research. In absence of objective observation and definition, 
verifiability of research findings is jeopardized. Social scientific theories and concepts can be 
studied meaningfully only through standardized measurement procedures. Therefore, it appears 
that social sciences cannot exist without objective measurement of variables. Such measurement 
provides the advantage of quantification of constructs and concepts which in turn provides a 
basis for using statistical and mathematical tools of analysis. 
 
 
Page 4


Module 3 
Research Methods in Population Studies 
Lecture 7: Methodology and Methods 
 
Slide 1 
POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY 
 
Methodology refers to philosophy and logic of methods, methods to specific tools and techniques 
of research. Broadly speaking there are two methodologies in sociology: positivist and 
phenomenological. Positivists assume that the social phenomena can be studied using tools and 
techniques of science. For them objectivity and value neutrality are the hallmarks of science. 
Phenomenologists reject positivism and claim that human behaviour is not amenable to scientific 
treatment. In order to understand human behaviour sociologists must study subjective meanings 
and qualitative methodology is more suited for this.  
In the past social scientists working in the field of population studies in general and 
morbidity and mortality in particular placed greater importance on quantitative methods such as 
survey and analytical methods. The shift in attention to AIDS epidemic, sexuality and 
empowerment has led to major changes in methodology. The reason is that researchers working 
on HIV/AIDS have to deal not only with estimation of incidence and prevalence rates but they 
also must explore the social representations of the virus, phenomenological issues in counselling, 
testing and care, effective intervention strategies and related policy issues.   
 
THE DEBATE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 
 
Literature shows that in demography statistical modelling and advanced statistical methods are 
used more extensively. Demographers use latest versions of regression analysis, factor analysis 
and multidimensional scaling. In the recent times, however, there is a greater appreciation of 
qualitative methods.  
 
 
 
Slide 2 
Today in sociology in general and in population studies in particular, qualitative methods 
such as participatory rapid (or relaxed) appraisal, discourse analysis, narratives, case history 
methods, biographical methods are more in demand than the advance statistical techniques. 
Importance of qualitative methods is derived from greater appreciation of multiparadigmatic 
and shifting paradigmatic stances in various fields of social sciences, metatheoretical 
commitments, and growing popularity of postmodernism. All this also implies popular distrust of 
experts, importance of subjective and social representations, historical research, and 
empowerment. Social constructionism has diverted attention of researchers from exploring the 
causal connections to understanding of the “taken for granted knowledge".  .  
For a long time sociologists favoured one of the two approaches – statistical and qualitative - 
and took a rigid stand on the matter. A polarity between the quantitative and qualitative methods 
has emerged very clearly in the disciplines of sociology and psychology. While a large number 
of researchers, for example, believe that meaningful research cannot be carried out without 
employing statistical tools, an equally strong number of researchers seem to be absolutely 
dissatisfied with this approach. Historically sociologists and psychologists have always 
endeavoured to bring sociology and psychology at par with pure sciences. In part, this is also due 
to the deep impact of methodological behaviourism in contemporary psychology. However, for 
several years now social scientists have been critical of such an approach and view it as a major 
source of narrowness in research. A considered view would be that no particular method is 
essential to social science research in all circumstances. Which method should be used and 
whether several methods should be used in combination depends on the purpose and approach of 
the study. It may be noted that the differences between statistical methods and phenomenological 
methods are not on a continuum between extreme polls. They may be combined at various 
levels.  
 
 
Slide 3 
STRENGTH OF STATISTICAL METHODS 
 
Statistical methods are useful for a variety of purposes. They are used for constructing scales, 
designing studies, describing data, exploring patterns, revealing dimensionality, and predicting 
social phenomena. They may also be combined with qualitative methodology. Statistical 
methods such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) have been used successfully in studies of 
social representations for which anthropology and social psychology have significantly 
contributed.  
Traditionally social sciences have always tried to be in line with the principles of natural 
sciences and have favoured exact and standardized scientific methodology. Social sciences have 
always considered quantitative methods as the only statistically valid and reliable methods of 
research. Using a deductive approach quantitative research yields statistically reliable results. 
The process of quantitative research is best suited for testing hypotheses. The obtained results are 
utilized for establishing causal relationships and making predictions. Quantitative research 
methods can be broadly classified under the four major categories:  
 
• Descriptive or survey research,  
• Correlational and causal research,  
• Experimental research.      
 
Positivists consider qualitative data as unreliable, ambiguous and doubtful. Yet, despite 
criticism and attack, the quantitative approach dominates social sciences.  Scintific observation is 
the keystone of social scientific research. In absence of objective observation and definition, 
verifiability of research findings is jeopardized. Social scientific theories and concepts can be 
studied meaningfully only through standardized measurement procedures. Therefore, it appears 
that social sciences cannot exist without objective measurement of variables. Such measurement 
provides the advantage of quantification of constructs and concepts which in turn provides a 
basis for using statistical and mathematical tools of analysis. 
 
 
 Slide 4 
Standardized measures are important for scientific communication. Objectivity and 
quantification enhance communication within the scientific community. Subjective evaluations 
of findings are far difficult to communicate as compared to results obtained through statistical 
analysis of standardized measures.   
Economy of time, money and scientific resources, such as use of biomarkers in modern 
health research to measure factors like HIV status and anaemia, is another reason that justifies 
the use of standardized statistical procedures. This is especially true when one has to study a 
large sample. Large samples cannot be studied through qualitative methods. Qualitative methods 
of data-collection such as in-depth interviews and participant observation might prove to be 
unwieldy and cumbersome in dealing with a large number of participants. Even if data is 
somehow collected from a large group at the expense of economy, it is rather difficult to handle 
the data without employing statistical procedures for a meaningful analysis.  
 
SCOPE OF STATISTICAL METHODS 
 
The above arguments bring this debate to a point where it is important to take note of the scope 
of quantitative statistical procedures. In population research quantitative methods are particularly 
useful in: 
 
• Estimation of size of national and sub-national populations 
• Estimation of demographic rates, and incidence and prevalence rates of various diseases  
• Causal analysis of concurrent and sequential variations in vulnerability to various risks 
• Operations research in which one wants to know whether a programme has been effective in 
achieving the desired goal (such as promoting safe sex practices,  reducing sigma against 
HIV and rehabilitation of people living with AIDS) 
• Descriptive studies of knowledge, attitudes and practices  
• Rapid situation analysis and benchmarking 
Page 5


Module 3 
Research Methods in Population Studies 
Lecture 7: Methodology and Methods 
 
Slide 1 
POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY 
 
Methodology refers to philosophy and logic of methods, methods to specific tools and techniques 
of research. Broadly speaking there are two methodologies in sociology: positivist and 
phenomenological. Positivists assume that the social phenomena can be studied using tools and 
techniques of science. For them objectivity and value neutrality are the hallmarks of science. 
Phenomenologists reject positivism and claim that human behaviour is not amenable to scientific 
treatment. In order to understand human behaviour sociologists must study subjective meanings 
and qualitative methodology is more suited for this.  
In the past social scientists working in the field of population studies in general and 
morbidity and mortality in particular placed greater importance on quantitative methods such as 
survey and analytical methods. The shift in attention to AIDS epidemic, sexuality and 
empowerment has led to major changes in methodology. The reason is that researchers working 
on HIV/AIDS have to deal not only with estimation of incidence and prevalence rates but they 
also must explore the social representations of the virus, phenomenological issues in counselling, 
testing and care, effective intervention strategies and related policy issues.   
 
THE DEBATE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 
 
Literature shows that in demography statistical modelling and advanced statistical methods are 
used more extensively. Demographers use latest versions of regression analysis, factor analysis 
and multidimensional scaling. In the recent times, however, there is a greater appreciation of 
qualitative methods.  
 
 
 
Slide 2 
Today in sociology in general and in population studies in particular, qualitative methods 
such as participatory rapid (or relaxed) appraisal, discourse analysis, narratives, case history 
methods, biographical methods are more in demand than the advance statistical techniques. 
Importance of qualitative methods is derived from greater appreciation of multiparadigmatic 
and shifting paradigmatic stances in various fields of social sciences, metatheoretical 
commitments, and growing popularity of postmodernism. All this also implies popular distrust of 
experts, importance of subjective and social representations, historical research, and 
empowerment. Social constructionism has diverted attention of researchers from exploring the 
causal connections to understanding of the “taken for granted knowledge".  .  
For a long time sociologists favoured one of the two approaches – statistical and qualitative - 
and took a rigid stand on the matter. A polarity between the quantitative and qualitative methods 
has emerged very clearly in the disciplines of sociology and psychology. While a large number 
of researchers, for example, believe that meaningful research cannot be carried out without 
employing statistical tools, an equally strong number of researchers seem to be absolutely 
dissatisfied with this approach. Historically sociologists and psychologists have always 
endeavoured to bring sociology and psychology at par with pure sciences. In part, this is also due 
to the deep impact of methodological behaviourism in contemporary psychology. However, for 
several years now social scientists have been critical of such an approach and view it as a major 
source of narrowness in research. A considered view would be that no particular method is 
essential to social science research in all circumstances. Which method should be used and 
whether several methods should be used in combination depends on the purpose and approach of 
the study. It may be noted that the differences between statistical methods and phenomenological 
methods are not on a continuum between extreme polls. They may be combined at various 
levels.  
 
 
Slide 3 
STRENGTH OF STATISTICAL METHODS 
 
Statistical methods are useful for a variety of purposes. They are used for constructing scales, 
designing studies, describing data, exploring patterns, revealing dimensionality, and predicting 
social phenomena. They may also be combined with qualitative methodology. Statistical 
methods such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) have been used successfully in studies of 
social representations for which anthropology and social psychology have significantly 
contributed.  
Traditionally social sciences have always tried to be in line with the principles of natural 
sciences and have favoured exact and standardized scientific methodology. Social sciences have 
always considered quantitative methods as the only statistically valid and reliable methods of 
research. Using a deductive approach quantitative research yields statistically reliable results. 
The process of quantitative research is best suited for testing hypotheses. The obtained results are 
utilized for establishing causal relationships and making predictions. Quantitative research 
methods can be broadly classified under the four major categories:  
 
• Descriptive or survey research,  
• Correlational and causal research,  
• Experimental research.      
 
Positivists consider qualitative data as unreliable, ambiguous and doubtful. Yet, despite 
criticism and attack, the quantitative approach dominates social sciences.  Scintific observation is 
the keystone of social scientific research. In absence of objective observation and definition, 
verifiability of research findings is jeopardized. Social scientific theories and concepts can be 
studied meaningfully only through standardized measurement procedures. Therefore, it appears 
that social sciences cannot exist without objective measurement of variables. Such measurement 
provides the advantage of quantification of constructs and concepts which in turn provides a 
basis for using statistical and mathematical tools of analysis. 
 
 
 Slide 4 
Standardized measures are important for scientific communication. Objectivity and 
quantification enhance communication within the scientific community. Subjective evaluations 
of findings are far difficult to communicate as compared to results obtained through statistical 
analysis of standardized measures.   
Economy of time, money and scientific resources, such as use of biomarkers in modern 
health research to measure factors like HIV status and anaemia, is another reason that justifies 
the use of standardized statistical procedures. This is especially true when one has to study a 
large sample. Large samples cannot be studied through qualitative methods. Qualitative methods 
of data-collection such as in-depth interviews and participant observation might prove to be 
unwieldy and cumbersome in dealing with a large number of participants. Even if data is 
somehow collected from a large group at the expense of economy, it is rather difficult to handle 
the data without employing statistical procedures for a meaningful analysis.  
 
SCOPE OF STATISTICAL METHODS 
 
The above arguments bring this debate to a point where it is important to take note of the scope 
of quantitative statistical procedures. In population research quantitative methods are particularly 
useful in: 
 
• Estimation of size of national and sub-national populations 
• Estimation of demographic rates, and incidence and prevalence rates of various diseases  
• Causal analysis of concurrent and sequential variations in vulnerability to various risks 
• Operations research in which one wants to know whether a programme has been effective in 
achieving the desired goal (such as promoting safe sex practices,  reducing sigma against 
HIV and rehabilitation of people living with AIDS) 
• Descriptive studies of knowledge, attitudes and practices  
• Rapid situation analysis and benchmarking 
Slide 5 
Quantitative survey research seems to be best suited for obtaining hard facts and factual 
descriptive information that is the keystone for most social scientific research. Qualitative 
research is not amenable to study many important research issues such as measurement of 
attitudes in various domains and for different purposes, analysis of voting behaviour, study of 
demographic patterns, behaviour patterns pertaining to health and illness, evaluation of 
community intervention programmes, religious beliefs and their causal influence on social 
behaviour, economic surveys etc. to mention only a few. An important point to note is that it is 
possible to study such a wide variety of problems and issues because of the diverse statistical 
techniques available to handle and analyze complex data. 
Most research problems involve intricate relationships among variables. Such relationships 
involve various complex formats and structures. Tacq (1997) has provided a comprehensive 
discussion of such structures and corresponding multivariate statistical techniques of analysis. 
The format of multivariate analysis techniques may involve convergent causal structure, 
interactive structure, spurious or indirect causality, discriminant structure, canonical structure 
and latent structure among others. The complex reality of social scientific problems is thus dealt 
with to a great extent by multivariate techniques. 
However, critics of positivism believe that social scientists deal with complex phenomena 
and study contexts that are characterized by multiplicity of meanings. Complex social reality is 
not amenable to quantitative approach. One major criticism of the traditional statistical approach 
in social sciences is that it emphasizes objectivity at the cost of tampering with reality. This lends 
support to qualitative methodology and qualitative methods.