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Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) PDF Download

Potential Formulation of Maxwel’s Equations

We have arrived at the set of Maxwell’s equations, which are,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

along with the constitutive relations,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

In this lecture will will attempt a formulation of the problem in terms of potentials. It may be observed that Maxwell’s equations are four equations for six quantities, viz., the components of  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Let us recall that in electrostatics, we had defined a scalar potential by  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) and in magnetostatics we introduced a vector potential Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Faraday’s law gives us

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

which gives us

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Notice that since with the introduction of Faraday’s law, the electric field did not remain conservative, we have not replaced the electric field with the gradient of a scalar function. We have still retained a vector potential because the magnetic field was a general vector field and it can always be expressed as a curl of yet another vector. However, the vector potential would not be the same as it was in the magnetostatic case.

Since the curl of  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) is zero, this combination is conservative and being an irrotational field can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function V. We define

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Let us see what this does to the Maxwell’s equations.

In vacuum, we have,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

In terms of V and  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) we have, on taking the divergence of both sides of the preceding equation,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

which contains both the electrostatics Gauss’s law and the Faraday’s law.

Let us consider the remaining pair of Maxwell’s equations. The divergence of magnetic field continues to be zero even after introduction of time varying electric field. However, Ampere’s law

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

can be restated as follows:

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where we have used,  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) c being the speed of light in vacuum, a universal constant.

We can rewrite this equation, by rearranging terms, as

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Equations (1) and (2) are two equations in four quantities (three components of A and one component of V) which are equivalent to the four Maxwell’s equations that we had obtained. These equations are not decoupled.

We will now use a choice of gauge that we have for the potential. We know that the scalar potential V is undetermined up to a constant while we can add gradient of a scalar function to the vector potential.

We will use,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

subject to Lorentz Gauge condition,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

the equations (1) and (2) get decoupled and give a pair of inhomogeneous wave equatons

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

solutions of which can always be found. However, can we ensure that Lorentz gauge can always be satisfied? The answer is yes. Suppose we have a pair of V and  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) for which Lorentz gauge is not satisfied and we have,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) is a scara function of space and time. Let us define

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

In terms of these, we have,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

We can get Lorentz gauge to be satisfied A' for and V' if we have 

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

which is equation for which a solution can always be found. Thus Lorentz gauge condition can always be satisfied.

Energy Density of electromagnetic field

Let us calculate the energy density of electromagnetic field and see how the energy contained in such field can change in a closed volume.

we have seen that the energy of a collection of charges can be written as follows:

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where in the penultimate step, we have used the relation

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

and converted the integral of the first term on the right to a surface integral by the divergence theorem and discarded the surface integral by taking the surface to infinity so that the remaining integral is all over space. The electric energy density can be thus written as

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

the last relation being true for a linear electric medium.

Likewise, the magnetic energy can be written as

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The magnetic energy density is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

the last relation is valid for a linear magnetic medium.

The total energy density in electromagnetic field is thus given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Poynting Theorem

Consider the case of an electromagnetic field confined to a given volume. How does the energy contained in the field change? There are two processes by which it can happen. The first is by the mechanical work done by the electromagnetic field on the currents, which would appear as Joule heat and the second process is by radiative flow of energy across the surface of the volume.

The mechanical power is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where the work done by the magnetic field is zero. This amount of energy appears as Joule heat.

The rate of change of energy in the volume can be calculated as follows. For a linear electric and linear magnetic medium,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Define “Poynting Vector”

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

We have,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

As the relation is valid for arbitrary volume, we have

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

This equation represents the energy conservation equation of electrodynamics. Converting the term representing volume integral of the Poynting vector to a surface integral, we get

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where we have denoted the surface element by da instead of the usual dS so that it does not cause confusion with our notation for the Poynting vector.

The second term on the right is the rate of flow of energy across the boundary of the region. We will see later that similar conservation law is valid for momentum contained in the field as well.

Tutorial Assignment

  1. A long straight wire of resistivity ρ and cross sectional area Acarries a steady current I. Calculate the amount of energy that enters a unit length of the wire.
  2. A long solenoid of radius R and having n turns per unit length has a core of permeability μ. The current in the turns of the solenoid is increasing at a uniform rate. Find the energy contained per unit length of the solenoid and express it in terms of the self inductance of the wire. What is the amount of energy flowing through the unit area of the surface of the solenoid?

Solutions to Tutorial Assignments

1. The energy enters through the surface of the wire and hence we are interested in the fields on the surface of the wire. By Ampere’s law, the magnetic field is given by  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) The electric field is  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) Thus the Poynting vector is  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) The amount of energy entering the surface per unit length of the wire is (ds is area element on the surface)

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

where R is the resistance per unit length of the wire. The electromagnetic field provides the energy to compensate for the Joule loss in the wire.

2. The magnetic field is axial and is given by  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) The corresponding induced electric field is obtained from Faraday’s law  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) The induced current and the electric field must be circumferential,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

which gives,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The Poynting vector, points radially and is to be calculated on the surface of the solenoid (as it has no component on the end faces of the solenoid)

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The energy flowing through the surface for a length  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) of the solenoid is

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The total energy density is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

so that

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

the electric field term is dropped because the current is changing at a constant rate. Integrating over the volume, the rate of energy flow  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) can be seen to be given by the same expression as obtained above. Comparing this with the expression for the self inductance of a solenoid,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

we get,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

Self Assessment Questions

1. A charge q is moving with a uniform velocity  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE). Obtain its Poynting vector and show that the energy propagates along with the moving charge.

2. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R is being charged at a uniform rate by current I in an external circuit. Obtain an expression for the Poynting vector when it is being charged. Calculate the flow of energy through imaginary cylindrical surface defined by the two plates of the capacitor.

Solutions to Self Assessment Questions

1. The electric field due to the charge is given by  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) A moving charge can be considered as a current,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

which gives,

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

as the integrand does not depend on q. Thus, the Poynting vector is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

because the radial direction is perpendicular to the direction of velocity.

2. The magnetic field was calculated in the last lecture in terms of the displacement current, it is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The electric field is directed from the positive plate to the negative plate (defined to be z direction) and is written as  Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) The Poynting vector is given by

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

The rate of energy flow through the imaginary cylindrical surface is obtained by integrating the Poynting vector and is given by (since the surface points inward)

Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

the last relation shows that the energy flow is at the cost of the energy stored in the electric field.

The document Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem | Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE) is a part of the Electrical Engineering (EE) Course Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT).
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FAQs on Maxwell’s Equations: Poynting Theorem - Electromagnetic Fields Theory (EMFT) - Electrical Engineering (EE)

1. What are Maxwell's equations?
Maxwell's equations are a set of fundamental equations that describe the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. They were formulated by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century and are widely regarded as one of the most important achievements in the field of electromagnetism. The equations relate the electric and magnetic fields to their sources, such as charges and currents, and provide a mathematical framework for understanding various electromagnetic phenomena.
2. What is the Poynting theorem?
The Poynting theorem is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism that relates the flow of electromagnetic energy to the electric and magnetic fields. It states that the rate of change of electromagnetic energy within a region is equal to the flux of the Poynting vector through the boundary of that region. The Poynting vector represents the direction and magnitude of the energy flow, and it is given by the cross product of the electric field and the magnetic field.
3. How are Maxwell's equations related to the Poynting theorem?
Maxwell's equations provide the mathematical foundation for the Poynting theorem. In particular, the equations for the divergence and curl of the electric and magnetic fields are used to derive the expression for the Poynting vector. The Poynting vector, in turn, is essential in applying the Poynting theorem to calculate the flow of electromagnetic energy in a given system. Therefore, understanding Maxwell's equations is crucial for comprehending and utilizing the Poynting theorem.
4. What are some practical applications of the Poynting theorem?
The Poynting theorem has numerous practical applications in various fields. One significant application is in the study of electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, microwaves, and light. The theorem helps in understanding how energy is transported by these waves and how it propagates through different media. Additionally, the Poynting theorem is crucial in designing and analyzing antennas, which are used in communication systems. It is also utilized in calculating the power dissipation in electrical circuits and in analyzing electromagnetic radiation from sources like antennas and electronic devices.
5. Can the Poynting theorem be applied to non-static situations?
Yes, the Poynting theorem is applicable to both static and dynamic situations. While it is often introduced in the context of time-independent fields, it can be extended to time-varying fields as well. In the case of time-varying fields, the Poynting theorem accounts for the changes in electromagnetic energy over time. It is particularly useful in understanding the behavior of electromagnetic waves, which are characterized by time-varying electric and magnetic fields.
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