New Strategy: Agriculture

Table of Contents
1. Introduction of New Agricultural Strategy
2. Important Features of the Green Revolution
3. Arguments in Favour of the New Strategy
4. Achievements of the New Agricultural Strategy
5. Weaknesses and Unintended Consequences
6. Second Green Revolution - Rationale and Strategy
7. Second Green Revolution and the National Commission on Farmers
8. Conclusion
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Introduction of New Agricultural Strategy

The new agricultural strategy adopted in India during the Third Five Year Plan (1960s) marked a deliberate shift from traditional, low-input farming to an intensive, technology-driven approach. The change followed recommendations in the Ford Foundation report titled "India's Crisis of Food and Steps to Meet it" (1959), which proposed concentrated efforts to raise agricultural production and productivity in selected regions by introducing modern inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, irrigation, credit and marketing facilities.

• In 1960, the Government began with a pilot project called the Intensive Area Development Programme (IADP), selecting seven districts (one in each participating state) to test the package approach.
• By 1965, the programme had been expanded: 144 districts (out of 325) were selected and IADP was renamed the Intensive Agricultural Areas Programme (IAAP).
• During the mid-1960s, Prof. Norman Borlaug of Mexico developed high-yielding wheat varieties. India adopted high-yielding varieties initially for wheat and subsequently introduced a broader High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) during the kharif of 1966.
• HYVP was implemented as a package: its success depended on reliable irrigation, timely application of chemical fertilisers, availability of affordable credit, quality seed supply, pesticides, and effective marketing and extension services. This ensemble of changes is popularly called the Green Revolution or modern agricultural technology.
• Initially HYVP with IAAP covered about 1.89 million hectares; by 1995-96 HYVP coverage had grown to approximately 75.0 million hectares, nearly 43% of the country's net sown area.
• The shorter duration of many HYV seeds allowed farmers to adopt multiple cropping, enabling two or more crops per year on the same land. Farmers in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Delhi adopted Mexican wheat varieties such as Lerma Rojo, Sonara-64, Kalyan and PV-18.
• For rice, several HYV varieties were tried (e.g., TN-1, ADT-17, Tinen-3, IR-8), but only IR-8 showed substantial success in many areas.

Important Features of the Green Revolution

Revolutionary character: The Green Revolution relied on the rapid introduction and diffusion of new technologies - HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, irrigation expansion, mechanisation and plant protection chemicals - producing dramatic yield increases in a relatively short period.

• HYV seeds: The core strategy of the Green Revolution was the use of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds. Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties that mature faster and give higher grain yield under favourable, irrigated conditions. These varieties typically require significantly greater usage of fertilisers (four to ten times higher than traditional varieties in many cases) and regular water supply.
• Package approach: HYV seeds were not a cure by themselves; the package included irrigation, fertiliser, pesticides, credit supply and marketing - all elements needed concurrently for success.
• Crop focus: The early gains were concentrated in wheat (hence often called a wheat revolution), because many of the irrigated, high-potential areas suited wheat cultivation and received priority input allocation. A large share of HYV adoption and chemical fertiliser use went to wheat-growing regions.
• Narrow initial spread: Early benefits of the Green Revolution were geographically concentrated in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Over time, adoption spread to other states including parts of West Bengal, Assam, Kerala and southern states, but diffusion remained uneven.
• Multiple cropping: Shorter crop duration of HYVs enabled more intensive crop rotations and multiple cropping, raising cropping intensity in favourable areas.

Arguments in Favour of the New Strategy

• Need for intensive approach: In a vast agricultural economy like India, intensive, targeted interventions were argued to be necessary to bring rapid productivity gains within a short period.
• Responding to the 1960s food crisis: Severe shortages in the 1960s required new measures to increase food production promptly.
• Economic rationality of HYVP: HYVP substantially raised yields per hectare where inputs and irrigation were reliably available, justifying the strategy economically in those regions.
• Selective adoption: Given constrained public resources, selective, area-based adoption in the most promising zones maximised early benefits.
• Spread effect: Demonstrated success encouraged other farmers to imitate and adopt HYV technology, producing an upward domino effect in productivity in neighbouring areas.
• Secondary effects: Higher agricultural output reduced food imports (saving foreign exchange) and stimulated agro-processing and related rural industries, creating rural employment and market linkages.

Achievements of the New Agricultural Strategy

• The most visible achievement was a substantial increase in production of major cereals, particularly wheat and rice. (See table indicated below.)

• Rice production rose from about 35 million tonnes (1960-61) to 54 million tonnes (1980-81) and further to around 99.2 million tonnes (2008-09). Yield per hectare also improved from approximately 1,013 kg/ha (1960) to 2,186 kg/ha (2008-09).
• Wheat production rose from about 11 million tonnes (1950-51) to 36 million tonnes (1980-81) and then to 80.6 million tonnes (2008-09). Yield per hectare increased from about 850 kg/ha to 2,891 kg/ha over the same broad period - an increase of roughly 240% in yield rate over five decades.
• Total foodgrain production, despite year-to-year monsoon fluctuations, increased from 82 million tonnes (1960-61) to 130 million tonnes (1980-81), about 213.5 million tonnes (2003-04), and further to 233.9 million tonnes (2008-09).
• However, the strategy's gains were concentrated in cereals. Commercial or cash crops such as sugarcane, cotton, jute and oilseeds registered only modest gains; these increases were not comparable to the cereal gains. (See table indicated below.)
• 
• Overall, the Green Revolution achieved food self-sufficiency in some staples for the country and laid the foundation for later growth in agricultural productivity and rural development, particularly in irrigated regions.

Weaknesses and Unintended Consequences

• Capitalist bias: The high-input model favoured large farmers who could afford investments in irrigation, machinery, fertilisers and credit, accelerating the growth of capitalist farming and leaving small and marginal farmers behind.
• Neglect of institutional reforms: Land reforms, tenancy reform, institutional credit expansion and secure land rights were not adequately addressed by the technology-first approach.
• Income disparity: The Green Revolution widened income inequality in rural India between regions and across farm sizes.
• Labour displacement: Mechanisation and capital-intensive practices displaced agricultural labourers in many areas, reducing employment opportunities for landless and marginal rural populations.
• Inter-regional disparities: Gains were concentrated in a few states (Punjab, Haryana, western UP), increasing regional imbalances in agricultural development.
• Environmental and health costs: Overuse of chemical inputs and pesticides produced undesirable consequences including soil degradation, groundwater contamination, pesticide poisoning and accidents affecting farm households.
• Dependence on groundwater: The early Green Revolution relied heavily on tube-well irrigation, causing falling water tables in several areas and long-term unsustainability of water resources.
• Limited diversification: Excessive focus on wheat and rice limited diversification into high-value horticulture, pulses and oilseeds in many regions, constraining nutritional improvement and income opportunities.

Second Green Revolution - Rationale and Strategy

• Given the limitations of the first Green Revolution, policymakers and experts championed a Second Green Revolution aiming at food and nutritional security, increased farm incomes and employment while ensuring sustainability and inclusion of small and marginal farmers.
• The new approach emphasised a "new deal" of higher public investment in agricultural research, irrigation, rural infrastructure and wasteland development to reverse declines in farm investment.
• Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, on inaugurating the New Delhi office of the International Food Policy Research Institute, announced plans for a National Horticulture Mission aimed in part at stimulating a second green revolution in high-value crops.
• The government argued for making modern technologies (including biotechnology) accessible and affordable to poor farmers and for encouraging private innovation while protecting farmers' interests. The Prime Minister stated: "The challenge is how to encourage this creativity, this innovativeness and at the same time to ensure that new products and new processes will be far affordable for the vast majority of farmers who live on the edges of subsistence."
• Agriculture Minister Mr. Sharad Pawar warned of the scale of the challenge, noting India's lower productivity compared with countries such as China and Brazil and urging the adoption and familiarisation of new technologies by the farming community.
• The Economic Survey (2006-07) identified structural weaknesses: low public investment, exhaustion of yield potential in some HYV wheat and rice varieties, unbalanced fertiliser use, low seed replacement rates, weak incentives and inadequate post-harvest value-addition. The Survey emphasised the need to raise agricultural growth to around 4% annually through improved reforms, sustainable resource use and better rural infrastructure (water, roads, power).
• There is broad agreement that renewed investment must focus on irrigation (including better water management and watershed programmes), agricultural R&D, extension services, and market and processing linkages to add value and expand exports.

The Approach Paper to the Eleventh Plan recommended a holistic eight-point strategy to raise agricultural output. These are:

1. Doubling the rate of growth of irrigated area;
2. Improving water management, rainwater harvesting and watershed development;
3. Reclaiming degraded land and focusing on soil quality;
4. Bridging the knowledge gap through effective extension;
5. Diversifying into high-value outputs (fruits, vegetables, flowers, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, bamboo, bio-diesel) while ensuring food security;
6. Promoting animal husbandry and fisheries;
7. Providing easy access to credit at affordable rates;
8. Refocusing on land reform issues (including measures to improve land access, tenancy reform and co-operative/collective farming where appropriate).

• Prime Minister Manmohan Singh emphasised the need for improved farm management, soil health improvement, water conservation, better credit delivery and application of science to animal husbandry to achieve the Second Green Revolution.
• Policy formulation and implementation must be region-specific, taking into account agro-climatic conditions, appropriate R&D, extension services and finance tailored to local needs.
• R&D priorities include drought-resistant crops, rain-fed agriculture solutions and biotechnological applications suited to small and marginal holdings.
• In July 2006 the Government initiated the National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) with a provision of Rs. 1,125 crore (approximately US$250 million) to strengthen agricultural research, promote livelihood security and foster partnerships among farmers' groups, panchayati raj institutions and the private sector. NAIP included components on management reform (ICAR as catalyst), production systems research, sustainable rural livelihood security and frontier/basic research in agricultural sciences.
• Under global trade liberalisation (WTO), integrating domestic agriculture with international markets and adding value through processing are strategic priorities. India's current processing levels are low (less than 2% of agricultural produce processed) compared with other countries (Brazil ~30%, USA ~70%, Malaysia ~82%), indicating large potential for agro-processing growth and export expansion.
• Public-private partnership (PPP) is expected to play a critical role in diffusion of technology, investment in supply chains and market development. The government indicated support for greater PPP in agriculture moving forward.
• As an example of targeted support, the Government announced a National Horticulture Mission (budget allocation Rs. 630 crore in 2005-06) to double horticulture production by 2011-12 using an integrated, end-to-end approach covering research, production, post-harvest management, processing and marketing.
• The Planning Commission considered a Food and Nutrition Security Programme and continued large social spending on schemes such as mid-day meals and the Antyodaya Anna Yojana to address malnutrition and food access.
• Union Budget 2010-11 proposed extending Green Revolution benefits to the eastern region (Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, eastern UP, West Bengal, Odisha) with community participation and allocated Rs. 400 crore for this initiative.
• The budget also proposed organising 60,000 "pulses and oilseed villages" in rain-fed areas (Rs. 300 crore) for integrated interventions - water harvesting, watershed management and soil health improvement - as part of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.
• The early Green Revolution's dependence on groundwater highlighted the need to move toward sustainable water management, recharge and rainwater harvesting to make any second Green Revolution genuinely sustainable and "green".

Second Green Revolution and the National Commission on Farmers

• Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, as Chairman of the National Commission on Farmers (NCF) and a principal architect of the first Green Revolution in India, outlined five core components of agricultural renewal to underpin a second revolution:
• Soil health enhancement;
• Water harvesting and sustainable, equitable use of water;
• Access to affordable credit and crop insurance as well as life insurance reform;
• Development and dissemination of appropriate technologies and improved opportunities;
• Creation of infrastructure and regulation for viable marketing of agricultural produce.
• These recommendations form an important framework for moving towards a second Green Revolution that is more inclusive, sustainable and diversified than the first.
• Prime Minister Manmohan Singh added two further emphases while calling for a second revolution: (a) application of science and biotechnology for improving seed quality and utilising herbal and other plants, and (b) application of science to animal husbandry to raise productivity in livestock and poultry.

The Prime Minister noted two principal reasons why the first Green Revolution had lost momentum:

• First, the Green Revolution largely bypassed dry-land (rain-fed) areas; and
• Second, the technology was not scale-neutral - it advantaged larger farms and better-off farmers.
• Supporting evidence of continuing rural distress includes NSSO data on rural indebtedness (January-December 2003) which indicated a sharp rise in indebtedness in some measures (reported in the source material as a rise from 4% to 27% within a year for a particular series), and aggregate rural household indebtedness figures that are substantial relative to total outstanding debt.
• The recorded per capita monthly consumption expenditure (MPCE) of farm households (reported as Rs. 503) was only slightly above the national rural poverty line at the time and lower than the poverty line in several states (e.g., Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Bihar), highlighting persistent vulnerability among small and marginal farm households.
• The Commission and subsequent commentators argued that land reforms and support for co-operative or joint farming could help address fragmentation (over 90% of holdings are small and marginal), improve economies of scale and broaden participation in productivity gains.
• Dr. Swaminathan warned of the risk of renewed food insecurity and rising malnourishment unless policy action was taken: "We are on the verge of a disaster. We will be in serious difficulty if food productivity is not increased and farming is neglected. The future belongs to nations with grains. The current food inflation is frightening. If pulses, potatoes and onions are beyond the purchasing capacity of the majority malnourishment will be a painful result."
• He and others urged the government to implement the NCF's recommendations, including policy measures to attract youth to farming, adjust compensation or incentive frameworks for farmers, and amend laws to enable women farmers to access credit without land as collateral.
• For the second Green Revolution to be inclusive, it must treat small and marginal farmers as partners of development rather than mere beneficiaries. This requires region-specific policies, better access to affordable credit, crop and life insurance, extension services, and value-chain development (storage, processing, marketing) to raise farm incomes and reduce vulnerability.

Conclusion

The new agricultural strategy introduced in the 1960s delivered a significant and rapid increase in cereal production in irrigated areas, preventing large-scale shortages and helping to build a more secure food base for India. However, its limitations - geographic concentration, environmental costs, unequal distribution of benefits and neglect of institutional reform - mean that a second, broader and more sustainable Green Revolution is necessary. Such a strategy must combine technological innovation with stronger public investment, regionally tailored policies, institutional reform, inclusive finance and market infrastructure, robust extension and R&D (including biotechnology where appropriate), and sustainable water and soil management to raise productivity, protect resources and ensure equitable rural development.