Class 9 History Chapter 2 Notes - Socialism In Europe and The Russian Revolution

The Age of Social Change

• After the French Revolution, there was a shift in societal structures, with discussions on individual rights and social power occurring globally.
• Figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio in India were influenced by the French Revolution, contributing to the discourse on societal change.
• Various responses to societal transformation emerged in Europe, ranging from gradual shifts to radical restructuring, categorized as 'conservatives,' 'liberals,' or 'radicals.'
• These political terms held differing meanings based on the context and time period, influencing the political traditions of the nineteenth century.
• The Russian Revolution exemplified a radical attempt to transform society, leading to the prominence of socialism as a key societal shaping idea in the twentieth century.

Socialism in the Russian Revolution

Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives

Liberals:

• Liberals sought societal change.
• They advocated for religious tolerance in nations.
• Opposed the unchecked power of dynastic rulers.
• Advocated for individual rights protection against governments.
• Called for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
• Advocated for laws interpreted by an independent judiciary.
• Not proponents of universal adult franchise.
• Believed voting rights should be for property-owning men only.
• Did not support women's suffrage.

Radicals:

• Advocated for government based on the majority.
• Supported women's suffrage movements.
• Opposed privileges of wealthy landowners and factory owners.
• Disliked concentration of property in few hands.

Conservatives:

• Initially opposed to radicals and liberals.
• Accepted the need for some change after the French Revolution.
• Believed in gradual change while respecting the past.

Societal Change Clashes:

• Diverse ideas on societal change clashed post the French Revolution.
• Nineteenth-century revolutions defined the limits and potential of political tendencies.

Industrial Society and Social Change

• Signs of a new era marked by significant social and economic transformations.
• Rise of new cities, industrialized regions, railway expansion, and the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
• Introduction of industrialization leading to the migration of men, women, and children to factories with long hours, low wages, and prevalent unemployment.
• Rapid urban growth creating issues like housing and sanitation.
• Liberals and radicals seeking solutions to societal problems, many being industrial property owners themselves.
• Belief in promoting individual effort, labor, and enterprise as the path to societal progress.
• Advocacy for freedom of individuals, labor for the poor, and unrestricted operation for those with capital.
• Support for revolutions by nationalists, liberals, and radicals to replace existing European governments post-1815.
• Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, collaborating for revolutionary changes in Italy, inspiring nationalists worldwide including in India.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

• Definition: Socialism emerged as a prominent ideology in mid-nineteenth-century Europe, advocating for a societal structure where collective ownership replaced private property.
• Rationale: Socialists viewed private property as the source of societal issues, highlighting that individual property owners prioritized personal profit over the welfare of the community.
• Objective: Socialists aimed to shift control of property from individuals to society as a whole to promote collective social interests.

Vision of Socialist Society:

• Cooperatives: Various socialist thinkers proposed different models for a socialist society, with some, like Robert Owen, advocating for cooperative communities like New Harmony in Indiana.
• Government Role: Socialists such as Louis Blanc in France suggested that governments should promote and support cooperatives to replace capitalist enterprises.
• Marxist Perspective: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels contributed additional ideas, asserting that industrial society was fundamentally capitalist, with workers generating profits for private capitalists.

Communist Society:

• Marxist Ideals: Marx envisioned a communist society where all property would be collectively owned, freeing workers from capitalist exploitation.
• Capitalism Overthrow: Marx believed that workers needed to overthrow capitalism to establish a socialist society where private property was eliminated.
• Future Society: He saw communism as the natural progression of society, where workers would ultimately triumph over capitalists.

Support for Socialism

• By the 1870s, socialist ideas gained traction in Europe.
• Socialists established the Second International to organize their endeavors.
• Workers in England and Germany started creating groups to advocate for improved living and working conditions.
• These groups initiated funds to support members during difficult times and pushed for reduced work hours and suffrage rights.
• In Germany, these associations collaborated closely with the Social Democratic Party (SPD), assisting it in securing parliamentary positions.
• By 1905, a Labour Party emerged in Britain and a Socialist Party in France, formed by socialists and trade unionists.
• Despite their influence on legislation through prominent parliamentary figures, socialists were unable to attain governmental power in Europe until 1914.
• While socialist ideas influenced laws, conservative, liberal, and radical factions continued to govern European countries.

The Russian Revolution

• In Russia, socialists seized power through the October Revolution of 1917, reversing the situation in one of the least industrialized European states.
• The fall of the monarchy in February 1917 and the subsequent events in October are collectively referred to as the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

• In 1914, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II and encompassed territories including present-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, as well as regions extending to the Pacific and including Central Asian states, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
• The dominant religion in the Russian Empire was Russian Orthodox Christianity, stemming from the Greek Orthodox Church, alongside Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.

Economy and Society

• At the start of the 20th century, the majority of Russia's population were farmers, with about 85% relying on agriculture for their livelihood, a higher percentage compared to many European countries.
• Russia was a significant grain exporter, with industrialization concentrated in areas like St. Petersburg and Moscow, where both large factories and craft workshops operated.
• The 1890s saw a rise in factory establishments due to expanded railway networks and increased foreign investments, leading to growth in coal, iron, and steel production.
• Factory workers and craftsmen became nearly equal in number by the early 1900s, with most industries being privately owned, though government oversight aimed at ensuring minimum wages and limited work hours.
• Workers were socially divided based on skills and origins, with varying working conditions and accommodation standards. Women made up a significant portion of the workforce but were paid less than men.
• Despite internal divisions, workers united in strikes to protest against dismissals or poor working conditions, notably in the textile industry in 1896-1897 and the metal industry in 1902.
• In rural areas, peasants cultivated most land, while nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church owned vast properties. Peasants, like workers, were internally divided, often showing discontent towards the nobility through actions like rent refusal and landlord conflicts.
• Russian peasants differed from their European counterparts by periodically pooling land resources and dividing them among families based on communal needs.

Socialism in Russia

• All political parties in Russia were illegal before 1914.
• The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was established in 1898 by socialists influenced by Marx's ideas, operating covertly due to government restrictions.
• Despite the challenges, the party published a newspaper, mobilized workers, and coordinated strikes.
• Certain Russian socialists believed that the tradition of land redistribution among Russian peasants naturally inclined them towards socialism.
• This perspective suggested that peasants, rather than workers, would drive the revolution, potentially leading Russia to socialism faster than other nations.
• Socialists were notably active in rural areas during the late 19th century, culminating in the formation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900.
• The Socialist Revolutionary Party advocated for the rights of peasants and the transfer of land from nobles to the peasantry.
• Contrary to the Socialist Revolutionaries, Social Democrats, particularly Lenin, argued that peasants were not a uniform group.
• Lenin observed differences among peasants, with some being impoverished laborers and others wealthy capitalists who employed workers.
• Due to this internal 'differentiation' among peasants, Lenin believed that they could not all be part of a cohesive socialist movement.
• The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party faced internal divisions regarding organizational strategy.
• Vladimir Lenin, leading the Bolshevik faction, advocated for a disciplined and controlled party structure suitable for the repressive Tsarist regime.
• On the other hand, the Mensheviks argued for a more open party approach akin to that in Germany, welcoming a broader membership base.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

• Russia in 1905 was under autocratic rule, with the Tsar not accountable to a parliament, unlike other European monarchs at the time.
• Liberals in Russia, along with Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, collaborated with peasants, workers, nationalists, and jadidists to push for a constitution during the 1905 revolution.
• The year 1904 saw a significant economic downturn for Russian workers, with a sharp rise in essential goods' prices leading to a 20% decline in real wages.
• Worker discontent culminated in over 110,000 St. Petersburg workers striking for reduced working hours, higher wages, and improved working conditions after four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers were dismissed.
• The peaceful procession led by Father Gapon to the Winter Palace, known as Bloody Sunday, turned violent when the police and Cossacks attacked, resulting in the death of over 100 workers and injuries to around 300.
• The aftermath of Bloody Sunday sparked the 1905 Revolution, marked by nationwide strikes, university closures due to student protests over civil liberties, and the establishment of the Union of Unions by middle-class professionals demanding a constituent assembly.
• As a result of the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar reluctantly permitted the formation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma, alongside the rise of numerous trade unions and factory committees comprising workers, although many operated unofficially due to legal restrictions.
• The Tsar's subsequent actions included dismissing the first and second Dumas swiftly, altering voting laws, and stacking the third Duma with conservative figures to maintain his authority and resist challenges from liberals and revolutionaries.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

• Conflict arose in 1914 between two European alliances: Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) and Allies (France, Britain, Russia).
• The war extended beyond Europe due to the global empires of involved countries.
• Russian support for the war initially strong under Tsar Nicholas II, weakened as he disregarded the Duma.
• Anti-German sentiments rose, evident in renaming St. Petersburg to Petrograd.
• Unpopularity of the autocracy increased due to Tsarina Alexandra's German roots and influence of Rasputin.
• Eastern and Western fronts of the war differed in tactics and outcomes.
• Russian losses in battles against Germany and Austria led to over 7 million casualties by 1917.
• Retreating Russian forces destroyed resources, causing over 3 million refugees and discrediting the government.
• Industrial impact: Russian industry suffered due to shortages, breakdown of railway lines, and labor deficits.
• Shortages of essential goods like bread and flour in cities led to widespread riots by winter 1916.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

• In Petrograd during the winter of 1917, the city's layout mirrored social divisions with workers' quarters on the right bank and upscale areas on the left bank.
• Food shortages and extreme cold in February 1917 exacerbated social tensions, leading to worker strikes and political unrest.
• Workers initiated strikes, notably on International Women's Day, gradually organizing without direct party involvement.
• Following clashes between demonstrators and government forces, soldiers and workers established the Petrograd Soviet, leading to the Tsar's abdication on March 2.
• A Provisional Government, comprising Soviet and Duma leaders, was formed to govern Russia until a constituent assembly determined the country's future.
• The February Revolution of 1917, centered in Petrograd, resulted in the downfall of the monarchy.

After February

• Army officials, landowners, and industrialists held influence in the Provisional Government, with liberals and socialists advocating for an elected government.
• Restrictions on public meetings and associations were lifted, leading to the establishment of 'Soviets' like the Petrograd Soviet across various regions, albeit without a uniform election system.

April 1917:

• Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned to Russia and proposed the transfer of power to the soviets, advocating for the end of the war, land redistribution to peasants, and nationalization of banks through his 'April Theses'.
• Lenin suggested renaming the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party to reflect its new radical objectives, surprising many party members initially.

Summer Developments:

• Worker movements expanded with the formation of factory committees and growing trade unions critiquing industrial practices.
• Soldiers' committees emerged in the army, culminating in the All Russian Congress of Soviets with about 500 representatives from various Soviets in June.
• The Provisional Government, witnessing a decline in power and a rise in Bolshevik influence, cracked down on dissent, leading to arrests and suppression of protests in July 1917.

Rural Unrest:

• Peasants and Socialist Revolutionary leaders in the countryside pushed for land redistribution, forming land committees to facilitate the process.
• Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants began seizing land between July and September 1917.

The Revolution of October 1917

• Conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks escalated as Lenin feared a dictatorship by the former.
• In September, Lenin initiated talks for an uprising against the government, rallying Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets, and factories.
• On 16 October 1917, Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to support a socialist seizure of power, organized by a Military Revolutionary Committee led by Leon Trotskii.
• The date of the uprising was kept confidential.
• The uprising commenced on 24 October with Prime Minister Kerenskii leaving the city to gather troops. Pro-government military forces targeted Bolshevik newspapers and strategic locations but were countered by the Military Revolutionary Committee's supporters who took control of the city by nightfall.
• The ship Aurora bombarded the Winter Palace, leading to the surrender of ministers and the control of the city by the committee.
• The Bolshevik action was approved by the majority at the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, triggering uprisings in other cities. Despite heavy fighting, the Bolsheviks gained control of the Moscow-Petrograd region by December.

What Changed after October?

• The Bolsheviks opposed private property and nationalized most industry and banks in November 1917.
• Government took over ownership and management.
• Declared land as social property, allowing peasants to seize noble land.
• In cities, Bolsheviks partitioned large houses based on family needs and banned old aristocratic titles.
• Introduced new uniforms for the army and officials after a clothing competition in 1918.

Renaming and Political Changes

• The Bolshevik Party became the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
• In November 1917, elections to the Constituent Assembly did not yield majority support for Bolsheviks.
• In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures, leading Lenin to dismiss it.
• Lenin favored the All Russian Congress of Soviets for its perceived democratic nature.
• In March 1918, despite opposition, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
• Bolsheviks became the sole party participating in elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, turning it into the country's Parliament.
• Russia transformed into a one-party state with trade unions under party control.
• The secret police (Cheka, later OGPU and NKVD) targeted critics of the Bolsheviks.

Cultural Impact

• Many young writers and artists supported the Party due to its socialist stance and promise of change.
• Post-1917, artistic and architectural experimentation increased.
• Censorship by the Party disillusioned some individuals.

The Civil War

• After the Bolsheviks initiated land redistribution, the Russian army fragmented as soldiers, predominantly peasants, deserted to participate in the redistribution, causing disarray.
• Opposition to the Bolshevik uprising came from non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy who formed groups in southern Russia to combat the Bolsheviks (referred to as the 'reds').
• Between 1918 and 1919, the 'greens' (Socialist Revolutionaries) and 'whites' (pro-Tsarists) held sway over most of the Russian empire, aided by troops from France, America, Britain, and Japan, alarmed by socialism's rise in Russia.
• Amidst the civil war between these factions and the Bolsheviks, widespread looting, banditry, and famine plagued the land.
• The 'whites' who supported private property took severe measures against peasants who had seized land, eroding their popular backing and ultimately losing control.
• By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had gained dominance over the majority of the former Russian empire, thanks to collaboration with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists.
• However, conflicts arose when Russian colonists themselves adopted Bolshevik ideology, such as in Khiva, Central Asia, where brutal massacres of local nationalists occurred in the name of socialism's defense.
• To clarify their stance, the Bolshevik government granted political autonomy to most non-Russian nationalities within the Soviet Union (USSR), established in December 1922 from the remnants of the Russian empire.
• Despite efforts to win over diverse nationalities, including unpopular policies like discouraging nomadism, the Bolsheviks' attempts at fostering unity were only partially successful.

Making a Socialist Society

• Bolsheviks nationalized industries and banks.
• Peasants were allowed to cultivate socialized land.
• Bolsheviks utilized confiscated land to showcase collective work.

Introduction of centralised planning:

• Officials evaluated the economy and established targets for five-year periods.
• Five Year Plans were formulated based on these assessments.
• Government set fixed prices to boost industrial growth in the initial two Plans (1927-1932 and 1933-1938).

Impact of centralised planning:

• Economic growth ensued; industrial production notably increased (e.g., 100% increase in oil, coal, and steel production between 1929 and 1933).
• New factory cities emerged.

Challenges faced due to rapid construction:

• Poor working conditions resulted from swift construction.
• Example: Magnitogorsk's steel plant construction in three years led to difficult living conditions and frequent work stoppages.
• Workers endured hardships, such as extreme cold temperatures.

Developments in social welfare:

• Extended schooling system and opportunities for factory workers and peasants to attend universities.
• Establishment of crèches in factories for workers' children.
• Provision of inexpensive public healthcare.
• Model living quarters were arranged for workers.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

Background:

• Early Planned Economy era linked to collectivisation disasters.
• By 1927-1928, Soviet towns faced grain supply issues.

Stalin's Actions:

• Stalin implemented emergency measures to address the crisis.
• Believed rich peasants and traders were hoarding grain.
• Ordered enforced grain collections and targeted 'kulaks' (wealthy peasants).

Collectivisation:

• Started in 1929, all peasants forced into collective farming (kolkhoz).
• Land and implements transferred to collective farms.
• Peasants' resistance led to livestock destruction and famine.

Consequences:

• Severe repercussions for those opposing collectivisation.
• Production didn't immediately improve; famine struck during 1930-1933.
• Critics faced charges of conspiracy against socialism, leading to mass incarcerations.
• Many innocents falsely accused, tortured, and executed.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

• Existing socialist parties in Europe were critical of the Bolsheviks' seizure and maintenance of power, despite the global fascination with the concept of a workers' state.
• The Bolshevik Revolution led to the formation of communist parties in various countries, such as the Communist Party of Great Britain.
• The Bolsheviks promoted their model to colonial peoples, attracting participants from outside the USSR to gatherings like the Conference of the Peoples of the East and the Comintern.
• Some individuals from non-Russian backgrounds received education at the USSR's Communist University of the Workers of the East, contributing to the global recognition of Soviet socialism by the outbreak of World War II.
• However, by the 1950s, it was evident within the USSR and the international socialist movement that the Soviet government deviated from the original ideals of the Russian Revolution.
• Although the USSR transformed into a major power with advances in industry and agriculture, it restricted essential freedoms, leading to a decline in its global socialist reputation by the end of the 20th century.
• Despite this decline, socialist ideals maintained respect among the Soviet people, prompting a reassessment of socialist concepts worldwide.