Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): The Age of Conflict

Table of Contents
1. The Ghaznavids - Origin and Expansion
2. Mahmud of Ghazni - Campaigns, Patronage and Legacy
3. From Ghaznavids to Ghurids: Changing Dynamics
4. The Rajput Principalities
5. End of the Early Rajput Ascendancy
6. Turkish Conquest of North India - Ghori and His Successors
7. Consequences and Historical Significance
8. Glossary
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Rapid political and military changes in West and Central Asia during the 9th-12th centuries had direct consequences for north India. The decline of the Abbasid caliphate by the end of the 9th century created a political vacuum in Central Asia that facilitated the rise of Turkic military adventurers; many Turks entered the armies of the caliphate as slaves and mercenaries, and later assumed titles such as Amir and Sultan. These Turkish cavalrymen excelled in lightning raids because of their superior horsemanship and capacity to cover great distances on horseback, and they pushed into north-west India at a time when the breakup of the Gurjara-Pratihāra hegemony had left the region politically fragmented.

The Ghaznavids - Origin and Expansion

The dynasty centred at Ghazni emerged from the eastern Iranian borderlands. Turks recruited into the Samanid military rose to power as Samanid authority weakened.

• Background: Transoxiana, Khorasan and Iran were territories in which the Samanids struggled continually with Turkic groups during the 9th and 10th centuries. Military encounters produced a class of frontier warriors known as ghāzīs - fighters for Islam who combined martial activity with a missionary zeal.
• Rise of Ghaznavids: A Turkic slave-commander, Alptigin, established an autonomous base at Ghazni. His successors consolidated power; the Ghaznavids took over the defence and expansion of Islamic rule in the eastern frontiers after the collapse of the Samanid state.
• Sēbuktegīn and Mahmud: Sēbuktegīn (Sebuktegin) and his son Mahmud of Ghazni were the most prominent Ghaznavid rulers. Mahmud ascended the throne at Ghazni in 998 and ruled until 1030.

Mahmud of Ghazni - Campaigns, Patronage and Legacy

• Military campaigns: From about the year 1000 Mahmud led repeated raids into the Indian subcontinent. He is credited with some seventeen expeditions into north-west India. His targets included regional rulers and wealthy temples; his invasions brought back enormous booty to Ghazni and financed campaigns in Central Asia.
• Principal Indian targets named in contemporary and later sources: Jaipala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, Fateh Daud of Multan, Anandapala of the Tomara/related northern principalities, the Chandelas (Mathura and Bundelkhand region), and important fortified towns such as Gwalior and Kanauj. The raid on Somnath (1025) is one of the best known episodes.
• Character and policies: Mahmud combined the roles of conqueror and patron. He presented himself as a champion of Islam and sometimes used the epithet "destroyer of images" in chronicles that emphasised temple plunder; at the same time he patronised letters and scholarship. His court attracted scholars such as Firdausi (the poet of the Shah-nama) and Al-Biruni (a polymath who wrote on India).
• Political result: Mahmud did not establish far-flung permanent provincial rule over the majority of his Indian conquests; his main territorial base remained Ghazni and a foothold in the Punjab. After his death in 1030 Ghaznavid power gradually receded in the face of new Central Asian forces, notably the Seljuks.

From Ghaznavids to Ghurids: Changing Dynamics

• By the late 11th and 12th centuries the balance of power in Central Asia shifted. The Seljuk Turkic empire rose in the west; in the south-eastern Afghan highlands the Ghurid dynasty (centred on Ghor) became increasingly powerful. The Ghurids and the Khwarazmians were new forces whose expansion pushed military activity into the Indian subcontinent.
• Ghaznavid influence in India declined by the late 12th century; new Turkish powers, notably Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad (Muhammad of Ghori), launched large-scale campaigns into north India.

The Rajput Principalities

After the weakening of large early medieval polities such as the Gurjara-Pratihāras, a patchwork of regional kingdoms often grouped under the generic label Rajput emerged across western, central and north-western India. These polities varied greatly in size and strength, but many shared social and political features associated with a martial aristocracy organised around clans and kinship networks.

Origins and Social Character

• Medieval genealogical traditions claimed descent from ancient Kshatriya lines: solar (Sūrya-vamsha), lunar (Chandra-vamsha) or heroic origins such as fire-born lineages (Agni-kula). These are literary and legitimising traditions rather than strict historical genealogies.
• Rajput society was clan-centred and feudal in character: land grants and jagirs circulated among nobles; military service and personal loyalty to a chieftain or king were central.
• Strengths included strong clan solidarity, martial skill and local authority; weaknesses included frequent internecine rivalry, inability to form a lasting, unified front against external invasions, and limited administrative centralisation.

Major Dynasties and Regions

• Tomars of Delhi: Feudatories of the Pratihāras initially; traditionally credited with founding or consolidating early Delhi (foundation traditions sometimes give a 8th-9th century origin). Mahipala Tomar is recorded in later traditions as capturing Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot (1043 CE). The Tomars were later subordinated by the Chauhans.
• Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer and Delhi: Rose to prominence in the 11th-12th centuries; the most famous ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan, who controlled Ajmer and for a time Delhi and Ujjain.
• Rathores of Kanauj: Established control of Kanauj for periods during the 11th-12th centuries; Jaichandra (Jaichand) is a prominent name in later chronicles, and he was defeated by forces of Muhammad of Ghori in the late 12th century.
• Chandellas of Bundelkhand: Established power from the 9th century; capitals such as Mahoba and forts like Kalinjar were important centres. The Chandellas are noted for their temple complex at Khajuraho (Kandariya Mahadeva temple completed c. 1050 CE).
• Guhilas (Sisodiyas) of Mewar: Centered on Chittor; legendary founders include regional chiefs such as Bappa Rawal. Later figures such as Rana Ratan Singh, Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh), and Maharana Pratap are associated with Mewar's resistance to later Muslim polities.
• Paramaras of Malwa: Ruled from Dhara (Dhar). The celebrated king Raja Bhoja (r. early-mid 11th century) was a patron of learning and architecture; his reign is associated with literary and scholarly activity.
• Contemporary dynasties in eastern India such as the Palas and Sena of Bengal were important regional powers but are not classified as Rajput clans; they represent different regional traditions and lineages.

Social, Religious and Cultural Features

• Many Rajput rulers presented themselves as protectors of brahmanical religion and society; brahmanas continued to be patronised and Sanskritic learning revived in courts. At the same time, local and vernacular languages and literatures (Prakrit, Apabhraṃśa, early forms of Marathi, Bengali, etc.) grew in importance.
• Religious life was diverse: while most Rajput courts were staunchly Hindu, they also patronised Buddhist and Jain traditions. The period saw the growth of devotional (bhakti) movements and temple-centred cults.
• Feudal organisation involved land grants and jagirs, and military obligation was central. The practice of warfare, codes of honour, and courtly patronage defined Rajput political culture.
• Cultural expressions included temple architecture, mural and miniature painting, court poetry and chronicles celebrating heroic exploits.

Principal Literary Works and Authors

• Kalhaṇa:Rajataranginī ("River of Kings") - chronicle of Kashmir.
• Jayadeva:Gīta-govinda - devotional poetry, "Song of the cowherd".
• Somadeva:Kathā-saritsāgara - "Ocean of tales".
• Chand Bardai:Prithviraj Raso - heroic epic ascribed to the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan (later redactions complicate its historicity).
• Bhāskara II (Bhāskara-chārya): Siddhānta-śiromani - a major work on astronomy and mathematics.
• Rājaśekhara: Court poet associated with earlier Pratihāra-period courts; works include Karpūramañjarī and other literary pieces, and a version of the Rāmāyana tradition in the courtly repertoire.

Art and Architecture

• Nagara temple style: Dominant in north India; characterised by a tall, often curvilinear tower (shikhara) over the sanctum (garbhagṛha), mandapa (assembly/porch) in front of the sanctum, high courtyard walls and ornate gateways.
• Notable temple monuments and related constructions of the period include:
  • Kandariya Mahadeva, Parśvanātha and Vishvanātha temples at Khajuraho (Chandella patronage).
  • Lingaraja temple (11th century) and Konark Sun Temple (13th century) in eastern India.
  • Jagannātha temple at Puri.
  • The Dilwara temples at Mount Abu - renowned for their intricate marble carving and associated with ministerial patrons such as Vastupāla and Tejapāla, who acted as builders and patrons in western India.
• Mural painting, manuscript illustration and a growing tradition of miniature painting flourished in several regions.

End of the Early Rajput Ascendancy

• The lack of a single, centralised military authority among the Rajput principalities, together with frequent internecine rivalries, meant they were unable to present a sustained, united resistance to large-scale external invasions that appeared from the late 12th century onwards.
• Cultural and social practices specific to the period included the practice of jauhar (mass self-immolation of women to avoid capture after defeat), which is recorded in several medieval accounts; these practices reflect the grave consequences of large-scale warfare and sieges in the period.

Turkish Conquest of North India - Ghori and His Successors

From the middle of the 12th century a series of campaigns launched by rulers from the Afghan highlands and Central Asia changed northern India's political landscape. The decisive actors here were the Ghurids under Muhammad of Ghori and the military commanders who served him.

Muhammad of Ghori and the Early Campaigns

• Rise:Muhammad of Ghori (commonly dated 1149-1206 CE) established Ghurid power in the mid-late 12th century and directed repeated campaigns into the Gangetic and north-western plains.
• First invasions: He began expeditions into India in the 1170s and 1180s, progressively challenging regional Rajput powers and capturing strategic forts and towns.

The Battles of Tarain

• First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE): Muhammad of Ghori captured Bhatinda (1189) and then encountered the forces of Prithviraj Chauhan. In 1191 Prithviraj defeated Ghori and recovered Bhatinda.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE): In 1192 Ghori returned and decisively defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj was captured and later executed according to many chronicles; this defeat marked the beginning of prolonged Turkish domination in parts of north India.

Foundation of Turkish Power in the Ganga Valley and East

• Battle of Chandwar (c. 1194 CE): In his drive to control the Ganga valley, Muhammad of Ghori defeated Jaichand (Jaichandra), the ruler associated with Kanauj, at Chandwar. The successive victories at Ṭarain and Chandwar laid the military foundations for Turkish rule in the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Commanders and subordinates: Muhammad of Ghori appointed capable commanders to consolidate conquests. Qutb-ud-Din Aibak became one of his chief lieutenants and was left in charge of the Indian territories; another important lieutenant in the east was Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji.
• Conquest of Bengal and Bihar: Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji led eastward raids and captured Nadia (the Sena capital) around 1203-1204 CE; he established a military presence at Lakhnauti (north Bengal). His raids also caused the destruction or decline of major monastic universities in Bihar and Bengal (monasteries such as Vikramashila and Nalanda suffered devastation in the early 13th century), contributing to the collapse of organised monastic learning in these regions.
• Rajput resistance and consolidation: Between 1193 and 1198 there were many instances of Rajput uprisings against the new rulers; these were suppressed by commanders such as Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, who gradually extended control over several regions and made Delhi an administrative centre.

Death of Muhammad of Ghori and the Emergence of Independent Turkish Rulers

• Assassination and consequences: Muhammad of Ghori was assassinated in 1206 CE. Contemporary and later accounts vary about the exact circumstances and perpetrators; his death removed the central figure who had directed Ghurid campaigns into India.
• Qutb-ud-Din Aibak: After Ghori's death, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak established himself as the dominant power in the north-west and northern plains, marking the beginning of a new phase of Turkic Muslim rule in northern India (the early Slave/Mamluk dynasty in Delhi). Aibak continued campaigns such as the capture of Kalinjar and Khajuraho, consolidating control over several strategic sites.
• Ghaznavids and Seljuks: The decline of Ghaznavid influence in India coincided with the rise of other Central Asian powers such as the Seljuks; Ghaznavid authority receded to a reduced territorial base centred on Ghazni and parts of the Punjab.

Consequences and Historical Significance

• The late 10th-12th centuries witnessed a major shift in the political map of northern India: regional Rajput principalities remained important, but the arrival of organised Turkish armies led to the establishment of new regimes with military, administrative and religious implications for the subcontinent.
• The early Turkish conquests did not instantly replace indigenous polities everywhere; rather, they created new centres of power (for example, Delhi and Lakhnauti) linked to wider Central Asian and Islamic worlds, and they initiated processes of political centralisation and cultural exchange that would develop further in the 13th century and beyond.
• Culturally, the period saw both continuity and change: temple building and Sanskritical patronage continued in many regions, vernacular literatures expanded, and new architectural and artistic forms emerged as courts and patrons adapted to changing political circumstances.

Glossary 

• Ghaznavids: Dynasty centred at Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan) of Turkic origin that rose after the decline of the Samanids.
• Muhammad of Ghori: Ghurid ruler whose campaigns in the late 12th century established the first sustained Turkish foothold in northern India.
• Qutb-ud-Din Aibak: Chief lieutenant of Muhammad of Ghori; after Ghori's death he became ruler in the north-west and founded the first of the Delhi Sultanate dynasties.
• Jauhar: Mass self-immolation by the women of a defeated fortress/community to avoid capture in the aftermath of siege or defeat.
• Gīta-govinda: "Song of the cowherd" - devotional lyric poetry by Jayadeva.
• Rajataranginī: "River of Kings" - historical chronicle of Kashmir by Kalhaṇa.
• Kathā-saritsāgara: "Ocean of tales" - a large collection of narratives compiled by Somadeva.

The period witnessed the decline of earlier regional hegemonies, the rise of martial Turkish powers from Central Asia and the Afghan hills, sustained raids and conquests under leaders such as Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghori, and the persistence of a mosaic of Rajput principalities. These developments set the stage for the political realignments and cultural encounters that shaped medieval north Indian history in the centuries that followed.