Various Instrumental Methods of Analysis: NMR, IR, UV, X-Ray | Inorganic Chemistry PDF Download

Instrumental methods of analysis are based upon the measurement of some physical property of substance using instrument to determine its chemical composition. There are different types of instrumental methods of analysis used to find out unknown component or to check the physical and chemical property of any given compound.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

The absorption that occurs in different spectral regions corresponds to different physical processes that occur within the analyte. Absorption of energy in the radiofrequency region is sufficient to cause a spinning nucleus in some atoms to move to a different spin state in the presence of a magnetic field. Consequently, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry is useful for examining atomic nuclei and the transitions between their possible spin states. Because nuclei from different atoms have different possible spin states that are separated from each other by different amounts of energy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry can be used to identify the type of atoms in the analyte. The spin states can be observed only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field.
The energy at which absorption occurs depends on the strength of the magnetic field. Any factors that change the magnetic field strength experienced by the nucleus affect the energy at which absorption occurs. Since spinning nuclei of other atoms in the vicinity of the nucleus studied can affect the magnetic field strength, those neighbouring nuclei cause the absorption to be shifted to slightly different energies. As a result, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry can be used to deduce the number and types of different nuclei of the groups attached to the atom containing the nucleus studied. It is particularly useful for qualitative analysis of organic compounds.

Microwave Absorptiometry

In a manner that is similar to that described for nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, electron spin resonance spectrometry is used to study spinning electrons. The absorbed radiation falls in the microwave spectral region and induces transitions in the spin states of the electrons. An externally applied magnetic field is required. The technique is effective for studying structures and reactions of materials that contain unpaired electrons.

Absorbed microwave radiation can cause changes in rotational energy levels within molecules, making it useful for other purposes. The rotational energy levels within a molecule correspond to the different possible ways in which a portion of a molecule can revolve around the chemical bond that binds it to the remainder of the molecule. Because the permitted rotational levels depend on the natures of the bonded atoms (e.g., their masses), microwave radiation can be used for qualitative analysis of some organic molecules.

Thermal Analysis

During thermal analysis heat is added to an analyte while some property of the analyte is measured. Often the temperature of the sample is monitored during the addition of heat. The manner in which the temperature changes is compared to the way in which the temperature of a completely inert material changes while being exposed to the same heating program. The results are employed for qualitative and quantitative analysis and for determining decomposition mechanisms of the analyte. For example, compounds that contain water exhibit a constant temperature region as the water is stripped from the compound even though heat is continuously added. If the manner in which a compound responds to a heating program is known, the technique can be used for quantitative analysis by measuring the time necessary for a particular change within the analyte to occur.

Infrared Spectrophotometry

Absorbed infrared radiation causes rotational changes in molecules, as described for microwave absorption above, and also causes vibrational changes. The vibrational energy levels within a molecule correspond to the ways in which the individual atoms or groups of atoms vibrate relative to the remainder of the molecule. Because vibrational energy levels are dependent on the types of atoms and functional groups, infrared absorption spectrophotometry is primarily used for organic qualitative analysis. It can be used for quantitative analysis, however, by monitoring the amount of absorbed radiation at a given energy corresponding to one of the peaks in the spectrum of the molecule.

Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry

Absorption in the ultraviolet-visible region of the spectrum causes electrons in the outermost occupied orbital of an atom or molecule to be moved to a higher (i.e., farther from the nucleus) unoccupied orbital. Ultraviolet-visible absorptiometry is principally used for quantitative analysis of atoms or molecules. It is a useful method in this respect because the height of the absorption peaks in the ultraviolet-visible region of the spectra of many organic and inorganic compounds is large in comparison to the peak heights observed in other spectral regions. Small analyte concentrations can be more easily measured when the peaks are high. If the analyte consists of discrete atoms (which exist only in the gaseous state), the method is termed atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

Some ions and molecules do not absorb strongly in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. Methods have been developed to apply ultraviolet-visible absorptiometry to those substances. Normally a chemical reagent is added that reacts with the analyte to form a reaction product that strongly absorbs. The absorption of the product of the chemical reaction is measured and related to the concentration of the non-absorbing analyte. When a non-absorbing metallic ion is assayed, the added reagent generally is a complexing agent. For example, 1,10-phenanthroline is added to solutions that are assayed for iron(II). The complex that forms between the iron and the reagent is red and is suitable for determining even very small amounts of iron. When a chemical reagent is used in a spectrophotometric assay, the procedure is called a spectrochemical analysis.

Spectrophotometric titrations are another example of spectrochemical analyses. The titrant (reagent) is placed in a buret and is added stepwise to the assayed substance. After each addition, the absorption of the solution in the reaction vessel is measured. A titration curve is prepared by plotting the amount of absorption as a function of the volume of added reagent. The shape of the titration curve depends on the absorbances of the titrant, analyte, and reaction product; from the shape of the curve, it is possible to determine the end point. The end-point volume is used with the concentration of the reagent and the initial volume of the sample solution to calculate the concentration of the analyte.

The detectors that are used in ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry measure photons. If these photon detectors are replaced by a detector that measures pressure waves, the technique is known as photoacoustic, or optoacoustic, spectrometry. Photoacoustic spectrometers typically employ microphones or piezoelectric transducers as detectors. Pressure waves result when the analyte expands and contracts as it absorbs chopped electromagnetic radiation.

X-Ray Absorption

Absorbed X rays cause excitation of electrons from inner orbitals (those near the nucleus) to unoccupied outer orbitals. In some cases, the energy of the incident X ray is sufficient to ionize the analyte by completely removing the electron from the atom or molecule. The energy required to excite the electron from an inner orbital is greater than that which is available in the ultraviolet-visible region. Because the inner shell electrons that are excited during X-ray absorption are associated with atoms in molecules rather than with the molecule as a whole, the information that is provided from a study of X-ray absorption spectra relates to the atoms within a molecule rather than to the entire molecule. X-ray absorption is used for qualitative analysis by comparing the spectrum of the analyte to spectra of known substances. Quantitative analysis also is performed in a manner similar to that used in other spectral regions. X-ray absorption spectra differ in shape from those observed in other regions, but the same measurement principles are applied during the assays.

Scattered Radiation

Radiative scattering is utilized in the second major spectral method of analysis. In this technique some radiation that passes through a sample strikes particles of the analyte and is scattered in a different direction. A detector is used to measure either the intensity of the scattered radiation or the decreased intensity of the incident radiation. Depending on the scattering mechanism, the method can be employed for either qualitative or quantitative analysis. If the intensity of the scattered radiation is measured, quantitative analysis is performed by preparing a working curve of intensity as a function of concentration of a series of standard solutions (i.e., solutions containing known concentrations of the component being analyzed). Working curves also are used with other analytical methods, including absorptiometry. The intensity of the scattered radiation in the analyte is measured and compared to the working curve. The concentration of the analyte corresponds to the concentration on the curve that has an intensity identical to that of the analyte.

For chemical analysis three forms of radiative scattering are important—namely, Tyndall, Raman, and Rayleigh scattering. Tyndall scattering occurs when the dimensions of the particles that are causing the scattering are larger than the wavelength of the scattered radiation. It is caused by reflection of the incident radiation from the surfaces of the particles, reflection from the interior walls of the particles, and refraction and diffraction of the radiation as it passes through the particles.

Raman and Rayleigh scattering occur when the dimensions of the scattering particles are less than 5 percent of the wavelength of the incident radiation. Both Rayleigh and Raman scattering are caused by the effect on the analyte of the fluctuating electromagnetic field that is associated with the passing incident radiation. The fluctuating field induces an electric dipole (separation of charges equal in size but opposite in sign) within the scattering particles that oscillates at the same frequency as the incident radiation. The oscillating dipole behaves as a point source of emitted radiation.

Emitted Radiation

The spectroanalytical methods in the final major category utilize measurements of emitted radiation. Except for a few radionuclides that spontaneously emit radiation, emission occurs only after initial excitation of the analyte by an external source of energy.

Luminescence

In the most common case excitation occurs after the absorption of electromagnetic radiation. The absorption process is identical to that which occurs during absorptiometric measurements. After ultraviolet-visible absorption, an electron in the analyte molecule or atom resides in an upper electron orbital with one or more vacant orbitals nearer to the nucleus. Emission occurs when the excited electron returns to a lower electron orbital. The emitted radiation is termed luminescence. Luminescence is observed at energies that are equal to or less than the energy corresponding to the absorbed radiation.
After initial absorption, emission can occur by either of two mechanisms. In the most common form of luminescence, the excited electron returns to the lower electron orbital without inverting its spin—i.e., without changing the direction in which the electron rotates in the presence of a magnetic field. This phenomenon, known as fluorescence, occurs immediately after absorption. When absorption ceases, fluorescence also immediately ceases.

Although it occurs with low probability, the excited electron sometimes returns to a lower electron orbital by a path in which the electron first inverts its spin while moving to a slightly lower energy state and then inverts the spin again while returning to the original spin state in the unexcited electron orbital. Emission of ultraviolet-visible radiation occurs during the transition from the excited, inverted spin state to the unexcited electron orbital. Because inversion of the spinning electron during the last transition can require a relatively long time, the emission does not immediately cease when the absorption ceases. The resulting luminescence is called phosphorescence. Both fluorescence and phosphorescence can be used for analysis. Fluorescence can be distinguished from phosphorescence by the time delay in emission that occurs during the latter. If the luminescence immediately stops when the exciting radiation is cut off, it is fluorescence; if the luminescence continues, it is phosphorescence.
Owing to the arrangement of electron orbitals in molecules and atoms, phosphorescence is observed only in polyatomic species, whereas fluorescence can be observed in atoms as well as in polyatomic species. When fluorescence is observed in discrete, gaseous atoms, it is termed atomic fluorescence.
The apparatus used to make fluorescent and phosphorescent measurements is similar to that used to make measurements of scattered radiation. The detector is usually placed perpendicular to the path of the incident radiation in order to eliminate the possibility of monitoring the incident radiation. Devices that are used to measure fluorescence are fluorometers, and those that are employed to measure phosphorescence are phosphorimeters. Phosphorimeters differ from fluorometers in that they monitor luminescent intensity while the exciting radiation is not striking the cell.
At dilute concentrations, the intensity of the luminesced radiation is directly proportional to the concentration of the emitting species. As with other spectral methods, qualitative analysis is performed by comparing the spectrum of the analyte (a plot of the intensity of emitted radiation as a function of wavelength) with spectra of known substances.
Luminescence can be initiated by a process other than absorption of electromagnetic radiation. Some atoms can be sufficiently excited to emit radiation when exposed to the heat in a flame. The analytical technique that measures the wavelength and/or the intensity of emitted radiation from a flame is flame emission spectrometry. If electrical energy in the form of a spark or an arc is used to excite the analyte prior to measuring the intensity of emitted radiation, the method is atomic emission spectrometry. If a chemical reaction is used to initiate the luminescence, the technique is chemiluminescence; if an electrochemical reaction causes the luminescence, it is electrochemiluminescence.

X-Ray Emission

X-ray emission spectrometry is the group of analytical methods in which emitted X-ray radiation is monitored. X rays are emitted when an electron in an outer orbital falls into a vacancy in an inner orbital. The vacancy is created by bombarding the atom with electrons, protons, alpha particles, or another type of particles. The vacancy also can be created by absorption of X-ray radiation or by nuclear capture of an inner-shell electron as it approaches the nucleus. Often the bombardment is sufficiently energetic to cause the inner orbital electron to be completely removed from the atom, thereby forming an ion with a vacant inner orbital.
Emitted X rays are used for qualitative and quantitative analysis in much the same way that emitted ultraviolet-visible radiation is employed in fluorometry. X-ray fluorescence is used more often for chemical analysis than the other X-ray methods. The diffraction pattern of X rays that are passed through solid crystalline materials is useful for determining the crystalline structure of solids. The analytical method that measures the diffraction patterns for the purpose of determining structure is termed X-ray diffraction analysis.
Several methods of surface analysis utilize X rays. Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) is the method in which a small area on the surface of a sample is bombarded with accelerated particles and the resulting fluoresced X rays are monitored. If the bombarding particles are protons and the analytical technique is used to obtain an elemental map of a surface, the apparatus utilized is a proton microprobe. An electron microprobe functions in much the same manner. The scanning electron microscope utilizes electrons to bombard a surface, but the intensity of either backscattered (deflected through angles greater than 90°) or transmitted electrons is measured rather than the intensity of X rays. Electron microscopes are often used in conjunction with X-ray spectrometers to obtain information about surfaces.

Electron Spectroscopy

Electron spectroscopy comprises a group of analytical methods that measure the kinetic energy of expelled electrons after initial bombardment of the analyte with X rays, ultraviolet radiation, ions, or electrons. When X rays are used for the bombardment, the analytical method is called either electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) or X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). If the incident radiation is ultraviolet radiation, the method is termed ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) or photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). When the bombarding particles are electrons and different emitted electrons are monitored, the method is Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). Other forms of less frequently used electron spectroscopy are available as well.

Radiochemical Methods

During use of the radiochemical methods, spontaneous emissions of particles or electromagnetic radiation from unstable atomic nuclei are monitored. The intensity of the emitted particles or electromagnetic radiation is used for quantitative analysis, and the energy of the emissions is used for qualitative analysis. Emissions of alpha particles, electrons, positrons, neutrons, protons, and gamma rays can be useful. Gamma rays are energetically identical to X rays; however, they are emitted as a result of nuclear transformations rather than electron orbital transitions.
A radioisotope is an isotope of an element that spontaneously emits particles or radiation. Radioisotopes can be assayed using a radioanalytical method. In other cases, it is possible to bombard a nonradioactive sample with a particle or with radiation in order to transform temporarily all or part of the sample into a radioactive material that can be assayed. Sometimes it is possible to dilute a sample with a radioactive isotope of the assayed element. If the amount of the dilution can be deduced, the intensity of the emissions from the added radioisotope can be used to assay the nonradioactive analyte. This method is called isotopic dilution analysis.

Electroanalysis

The second major category of instrumental analysis is electroanalysis. The electroanalytical methods use electrically conductive probes, called electrodes, to make electrical contact with the analyte solution. The electrodes are used in conjunction with electric or electronic devices to which they are attached to measure an electrical parameter of the solution. The measured parameter is related to the identity of the analyte or to the quantity of the analyte in the solution.
The electroanalytical methods are divided into categories according to the electric parameters that are measured. The major electroanalytical methods include potentiometry, amperometry, conductometry, electrogravimetry, voltammetry (and polarography), and coulometry. The names of the methods reflect the measured electric property or its units. Potentiometry measures electric potential (or voltage) while maintaining a constant (normally nearly zero) electric current between the electrodes. Amperometry monitors electric current (amperes) while keeping the potential constant. Conductometry measures conductance (the ability of a solution to carry an electric current) while a constant alternating-current (AC) potential is maintained between the electrodes. Electrogravimetry is a gravimetric technique similar to the classical gravimetric methods that were described above, in which the solid that is weighed is deposited on one of the electrodes. Voltammetry is a technique in which the potential is varied in a regular manner while the current is monitored. Polarography is a subtype of voltammetry that utilizes a liquid metal electrode. Coulometry is a method that monitors the quantity of electricity (coulombs) that are consumed during an electrochemical reaction involving the analyte.
Most of the electroanalytical methods rely on the flow of electrons between one or more of the electrodes and the analyte. The analyte must be capable of either accepting one or more electrons (known as reduction) from the electrode or donating one or more electrons (oxidation) to the electrode. As an example, ferric iron (Fe³⁺) can be assayed because it can undergo a reduction to ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) by accepting an electron from the electrode as shown in the following reaction:
Fe³⁺ + e^- (from the electrode) → Fe²⁺ 

Conductometry

This is the method in which the capability of the analyte to conduct an electrical current is monitored. From Ohm’s law (E = IR) it is apparent that the electric current (I) is inversely proportional to the resistance (R), where E represents potential difference. The inverse of the resistance is the conductance (G = 1/R). As the conductance of a solution increases, its ability to conduct an electric current increases.
In liquid solutions current is conducted between the electrodes by dissolved ions. The conductance of a solution depends on the number and types of ions in the solution. Generally small ions and highly charged ions conduct current better than large ions and ions with a small charge. The size of the ions is important because it determines the speed with which the ions can travel through the solution. Small ions can move more rapidly than larger ones. The charge is significant because it determines the amount of electrostatic attraction between the electrode and the ions.
Because conductometric measurements require the presence of ions, conductometry is not useful for the analysis of undissociated molecules. The measured conductance is the total conductance of all the ions in the solution. Since all ions contribute to the conductivity of a solution, the method is not particularly useful for qualitative analysis—i.e., the method is not selective. The two major uses of conductometry are to monitor the total conductance of a solution and to determine the end points of titrations that involve ions. Conductivity meters are used in conjunction with water purification systems, such as stills or deionizers, to indicate the presence or absence of ion-free water.
Conductometric titration curves are prepared by plotting the conductance as a function of the volume of added titrant. The curves consist of linear regions prior to and after the end point. The two linear portions are extrapolated to their point of intersection at the end point. As in other titrations, the end-point volume is used to calculate the amount or concentration of analyte that was originally present.