Indian Nationalism - 2 - UPSC PDF Download

Quit India Movement / August revolution 1942

The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Revolution of 1942, was a significant milestone in India's struggle for independence from British rule. This movement marked a notable departure from Mahatma Gandhi's previous non-violent resistance campaigns, as it was the most un-Gandhian, least controlled, and most militant of all his movements. 

1. Use of Force for Self-Defense: Gandhi allowed the use of force for self-defense during the Quit India Movement, which was a departure from his earlier insistence on non-violence. He believed that the use of force was justified against a stronger and well-equipped aggressor, such as the British colonial government.
2. 'Do or Die' Slogan: Gandhi called for a 'Do or Die' approach during the Quit India Movement, urging the people not to remain alive to see their country in a state of slavery. He believed that nations survive when people are ready to die for their cause and that any delay in attaining freedom would be injurious and humiliating.
3.  No Restriction on Methods: The Congress resolution during the Quit India Movement did not prescribe any restrictions on the methods adopted by the people. Everyone was free to choose their methods, and they were encouraged to defend themselves against aggression.
4. Grassroot Leadership Emergence: The Quit India Movement was characterized by the emergence of grassroots leadership. Once the top leaders were arrested, the common people took charge and became their own leaders. This spontaneous leadership was a reflection of Gandhi's desire to see a 'class in itself' transform into a 'class for itself.'
5. Gandhi's War of Movement: The Quit India Movement was Gandhi's 'war of movement,' marking a direct attack on the British colonial government. He declared it as the last struggle of his life and aimed to throw the British out of India.
6. Justification of Violence: Gandhi justified the use of violence during the Quit India Movement, as he believed that any mass movement could not be entirely free from violence. He recognized that there would be no birth without blood and that non-violence was merely a strategy to bring the masses within the fold of the national movement.

Militant and Revolutionary Movements in India

Revolutionary movements have played a crucial role in India's struggle for freedom, particularly during the passive phases of the mainstream movement. Revolutionaries have inspired the youth and demonstrated exceptional heroism, instilling pride and a sense of sacrifice for the motherland. Despite the lack of support from the Indian National Congress (INC) and limited resources, the revolutionary movements managed to influence and mobilize the masses.

1. Role of Women in Revolutionary Movements
Women also played a significant role in the revolutionary movements in India. Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Datt, and Madam Kama are some of the prominent examples. These women showcased extraordinary courage and dedication towards the cause of India's independence.

2. Inspirations for Indian Revolutionaries
Several factors inspired the revolutionaries in India, including:

• Bankimchandra Chatterji’s Anandmath: This novel served as a source of inspiration for revolutionaries, as it portrayed the struggle for freedom against British oppression.
• Sachindranath Sanyal’s Bandi Jeevan: This autobiography recounts Sanyal's experiences as a revolutionary, further motivating others to join the cause.
• Bhagawati Charan Vohra’s Philosophy of Bomb: This document provided a justification for the use of violence as a means to achieve independence.
• International Influences: Indian revolutionaries were also inspired by Irish nationalists, Russian nihilists, and Russian revolutionaries who fought against oppressive regimes in their respective countries.

3. Difference Between Revolutionaries and Terrorists
While both revolutionaries and terrorists employ violence to achieve their goals, there is a fundamental difference between the two. Revolutionaries primarily target the oppressors and avoid indiscriminate killing of civilians, unlike terrorists. Thus, it is essential to distinguish between the two acts where violence is used.

Peasant Movement in Colonial India: An Overview

The peasants were among the most adversely affected sections of society during the colonial rule in India. The reasons for their suffering were primarily due to the British land settlement policies and the destruction of Indian handicrafts by the colonial rulers. The history of peasant movements and revolts can be traced back to even before the inception of the national movement in India. Prominent subaltern historians like Ranjit Guha, Gyan Pandey, Prof. Irfan Habib, and Sumit Sarkar have emphasized the role of the peasantry in Indian history. One notable example of a peasant revolt is the Indigo Rebellion of 1860, documented by Din Bandhu Mitro in his book "Neel Darpan."

Phases of Peasant Movements

1. First Phase - Until 1920s: During this period, the Indian National Congress did not actively address the cause of the peasants. However, after Mahatma Gandhi's emergence in the political scene, the issue of peasants started gaining attention within the Congress party. Nevertheless, Gandhi's approach towards the peasantry was conciliatory, rather than transformative.
2. Second Phase - 1930s Onwards: In this phase, the Congress began organizing the peasantry. However, it is worth noting that Kisan Sabhas (peasant associations) and peasant parties were also emerging autonomously, with significant contributions from the communist movement in India. The dependence of the peasant organizations on the Congress party started to diminish.
   In 1936, the All India Kisan Sabha was formed under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand. The main demands of the Kisan Sabhas were land reforms and regulation of rent.
3. Third Phase - 1940s: During this phase, two prominent movements emerged – the Telangana movement and the Tebhaga movement. These movements were inspired by the communists and were autonomous and localized in nature.

Overall Assessment

The peasantry in India could not play a concrete role, either for themselves or in the freedom struggle, when compared to the peasantry in China. Unlike China, where Mao Zedong emerged as an organic intellectual leader from the peasant class, no such leadership developed in India. The Indian peasantry remained divided along caste and religious lines.

There were numerous instances of spontaneous, localized revolts, but no organized effort at an all-India level. This lack of nationwide organization is also one of the reasons behind the failure of land reforms in India, even after gaining independence.

Trade Union Movement in India: An Overview

The trade union movement in India has been weak and fragmented, even after the country's independence. Despite the emergence of modern workers in the 19th century due to the introduction of railways, post, and telegrams, trade unions have often been overshadowed by political parties and have lacked an autonomous character. Additionally, workers have remained divided along the lines of caste and religion, further weakening their collective bargaining power. This article provides a chronological overview of the trade union movement in India and its various stages of development.

1. Early Beginnings of the Trade Union Movement: The organized labor movement in India was initiated by philanthropists like S.S. Bengalee and Sasipada Banerjee, who were concerned about the welfare of workers. The first trade union, or labor organization, was formed by Lokhanday, who established the Bombay Mill Hands Association. This marked the beginning of trade unions in India, although they were still relatively weak at this stage.
2. Influence of the Russian Revolution and the Growth of Socialist Ideas: The Russian Revolution led to the growth of socialist ideas in India, inspiring some leaders to take an interest in organizing workers. Prominent figures like Lala Lajapat Rai and Mahatma Gandhi were instrumental in leading worker protests, such as the Ahmedabad Textile Mill strike. This period saw an increased focus on worker rights and the need for a stronger trade union movement.
3. Formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed, with Lala Lajapat Rai as its first president. The AITUC aimed to bring together various trade unions across the country and strengthen the labor movement. However, the organization was infiltrated by communists, leading to internal disagreements.
4. The Communist Split and the Formation of the Red Flag Trade Union: The communists eventually left AITUC and formed their own organization called the Red Flag Trade Union. This split further weakened the trade union movement in India, as workers were now divided between different factions. However, the communists later rejoined AITUC, only to leave again during the Quit India Movement (QIM).
5. Reunification of Communists and AITUC: After the QIM, the communists once again rejoined AITUC, leading to a brief period of unity within the trade union movement. However, this unity was short-lived, as the Congress party soon decided to leave AITUC and form its own trade union organization.
6. Formation of Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC): The Congress party established the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) as its own trade union organization. This further fragmented the trade union movement in India, as workers were now divided between AITUC and INTUC, along with other smaller trade unions.

Role of women in freedom movement

The participation of women in the freedom movement has been a significant area of research in historical studies. Despite living in a highly patriarchal society, women played crucial roles in the struggle for independence in India. They contributed to the movement in various ways, from leading armies to participating in political organizations.

• Women as Warriors and Defenders of their States: There are numerous examples of women who fought against the British and defended their states during the freedom movement. Bimbai Holkar, for instance, defeated the British in a guerrilla war. Rani Chenamma successfully protected the independence of her Kittoor state. During the revolt of 1857, Rani Laxmibai and Begum Hazrat Mahal played heroic roles in resisting the British forces.
•  Women in the Indian National Congress (INC): Women actively participated in the INC, which was the primary political organization fighting for India's independence. Mahatma Gandhi, in particular, was successful in mobilizing women's resources and involving them in various aspects of the freedom movement. Women played a key role in the constructive programs, especially in promoting Khadi and Swadeshi products.
• Prominent Women Leaders in the Freedom Movement: Several women leaders emerged during the struggle for independence, including Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu, Bhikaji Cama, Sucheta Kripalani, and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. These women not only contributed to the freedom movement but also played significant roles in shaping the future of independent India. Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga woman, is another notable example of a woman who remained undeterred by colonial excesses and patriarchal barriers.
• Women in Social and Economic Empowerment: Besides their active participation in the freedom movement, women leaders like Pandita Ramabai, Durgabai Deshmukh, Basanti Devi, and Suniti Devi played crucial roles in the social and economic empowerment of women. They worked towards women's education, health, and overall upliftment, even as they contributed to the struggle for independence.
• Women's Organizations during the Freedom Movement: Several women's organizations were formed during the freedom movement, which played a vital role in mobilizing women and raising awareness about their rights. The Young Women Christian Association (YWCA), established in 1875, and the All India Women's Conference, founded in 1927, were two such important organizations that worked towards women's empowerment and their participation in the freedom struggle.

Nationalist ideology and women issues

The women's movement in India has a complex history, as it was initially started by men and later saw the active participation of women in various phases of the movement. Although women were part of the Congress party and its activities, the leaders did not treat women's issues as the core concern. This essay explores the patriarchal approach of the mainstream leaders towards women's issues, with a focus on Gandhi's utilization of women as a resource for mass movements and the opposition to Ambedkar's Hindu Code Bill.

• Gandhi's Approach to Women's Issues: Mahatma Gandhi, a key figure in India's freedom struggle, mobilized women for his mass movements, such as the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Dandi March. However, his approach to women's issues was more about using them as a resource to strengthen the movement, rather than focusing on the upliftment of women as such. This indicates that the concerns of women were often relegated to the periphery, similar to the issues faced by peasants and workers.
• Patriarchal Attitudes of Mainstream Leaders: Despite the active participation of women in the nationalist movement, the mainstream leaders exhibited patriarchal attitudes towards women's issues. A prime example of this is the strong protest against Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's Hindu Code Bill, which sought to reform Hindu personal laws related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption. The opposition to the Bill came from prominent leaders like Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who believed that the proposed reforms were an attack on traditional Hindu customs and values.
• Ambedkar's Hindu Code Bill and Women's Rights: The Hindu Code Bill, championed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, aimed to address gender inequality in Hindu personal laws and provide women with equal rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption. However, the Bill faced severe opposition from conservative leaders within the Congress party, who perceived it as a threat to the traditional social structure. This opposition highlights the reluctance of mainstream leaders to prioritize women's issues and their inability to fully embrace liberal values.

Perspectives on Indian Nationalism

1. Imperialist Perspective: Imperialist historians and administrators like Lord Curzon and Dufferin challenged the existence of India as a nation and the claims of the Congress as a representative of the nation. They believed that India was nothing more than a geographical expression. Scholars such as Percival Spear, Louis Neme, and Anil Seal argued that the political activities between 1857 to 1947 in the subcontinent cannot be called a nationalist movement, as a nation has to exist before a national movement. They labeled the freedom struggle as a communal movement, with its leaders being power brokers interested in gaining British favor for their community members. They believed that there was no 'great' idea behind political activities and that they were guided by animal instincts. According to this perspective, the formation of Pakistan was the logical outcome of such a movement, and the nature of politics in contemporary India has not changed.
2. Nationalist Interpretation: Nationalist leaders and scholars rejected the imperialist discourse. Early nationalists like Surendranath Banerjee accepted that India was not a nation but asserted that India was a 'nation in the making'. Cultural nationalists like Aurobindo Ghosh believed that India was a nation from the beginning and combined nationalism and patriotism to challenge the British discourse. Nationalist historians like Dr. Tarachand and RC Mujumdar argued that the Congress-led movement was indeed a nationalist movement, with an inclusive agenda and grand ideas inspiring political leaders. They claimed that the existence of India as a nation could not be dismissed, given its survival against numerous external and internal challenges.
3. Marxist Interpretation: Marxists, like Benedict Anderson, believed that nationalism is an 'invented tradition' and an instrument of the bourgeoisie class. Marx himself analyzed the Revolt of 1857, suggesting it to be a revolt by feudal elements rather than the 'first war of independence' as proposed by Savarkar. Marxist scholars like MN Roy, AR Desai, and RD Dutt considered the Congress a bourgeoisie party and Gandhi a bourgeoisie leader. However, Sumit Sarkar warned against taking a casual approach to this interpretation, acknowledging that while the Congress program may not have benefited the masses, it had no conscious or planned strategy against them. Bipin Chandra, despite being a Marxist, suggested that the Congress-led movement could be called a national movement and that its warmth is still felt today.
4. Dalit/Subaltern Perspective: The Dalit perspective, also known as the subaltern perspective, is represented by the works of various Dalit leaders and scholars. Jyotiba Phule criticized Brahminism and preferred British rule over the Peshwa rule. Ambedkar, influenced by Phule, rejected the idea of India as a nation and the Congress-led movement as a national movement. He believed that a nation is built on the feeling of fraternity and never joined the Congress nor participated in its programs. He supported Jinnah's demand for a separate Pakistan and opposed the Quit India movement, wishing for the British to stay. The perspective of EV Ramaswamy Naikar, or Periyar, is also relevant, as he left the Congress, believing it to be a party of Brahmins with no scope for other communities. He supported Jinnah's demand for a separate Pakistan and even demanded a separate state for Dravidians.
5. Socialist Perspective: The socialist perspective was influenced by the Russian revolution. Leaders like Bhagat Singh, Nehru, and Bose introduced socialism in Congress. Radical Congressmen like JP Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, and Minna Masani formed the Congress Socialist Party in 1934, aiming to radicalize the Congress's program while still being influenced by Gandhi.
6. Radical Humanist Perspective: MN Roy, a radical humanist, considered Congress a bourgeois party and Gandhi a bourgeois leader. He proposed the philosophy of Radical Humanism, arguing that nationalism suppresses individuals and that there is a need to build a cosmopolitan union of liberated persons.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the struggle for India's independence was marked by the involvement of various groups and ideologies, with each playing a significant role in shaping the nation's history. From Gandhi's unique approach to mass movements to the contributions of women, peasants, and workers, the freedom movement encompassed a wide range of perspectives and strategies. Despite the challenges of internal divisions and differing viewpoints, the collective efforts of these diverse groups ultimately led to India's independence from British rule. Understanding the complexities of India's freedom struggle is crucial in appreciating the rich history and the foundations of the nation's progress today.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) for Indian Nationalism

What was the significance of the Quit India Movement in India's struggle for independence?

The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Revolution of 1942, was a significant milestone in India's struggle for independence. It marked a departure from Mahatma Gandhi's previous non-violent resistance campaigns, as it was the most militant and least controlled of all his movements. The movement saw the use of force for self-defense, grassroots leadership emergence, and a direct attack on the British colonial government.

 How did revolutionary movements contribute to India's freedom struggle?

Revolutionary movements played a crucial role in India's struggle for freedom, particularly during passive phases of the mainstream movement. Revolutionaries inspired the youth, demonstrated exceptional heroism, and instilled pride and a sense of sacrifice for the motherland. Despite the lack of support from the Indian National Congress (INC) and limited resources, the revolutionary movements managed to influence and mobilize the masses.

What role did women play in the Indian freedom movement?

Women played significant roles in the struggle for independence in India, from leading armies to participating in political organizations. They contributed to the movement in various ways, such as fighting against the British, defending their states, actively participating in the Indian National Congress, and working towards social and economic empowerment.

How has the trade union movement in India evolved over time?

The trade union movement in India has seen several stages of development, starting with its early beginnings initiated by philanthropists concerned about workers' welfare. The influence of the Russian Revolution and the growth of socialist ideas led to the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). Over time, the trade union movement faced splits, reunifications, and the formation of the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), leading to a fragmented and weak labor movement.

How did nationalist leaders approach women's issues during the freedom movement?

Nationalist leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, mobilized women for mass movements but often treated women's issues as peripheral concerns. The leaders focused more on using women as a resource to strengthen the movement, rather than addressing their upliftment. This patriarchal approach is also evident in the opposition to Ambedkar's Hindu Code Bill, which sought to reform Hindu personal laws related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption.