Pre-history and Proto-history - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

The geography of a country or region is essential to understanding its history, as the people's history is greatly influenced by the geography and environment in which they live. Factors such as climate, soil types, water resources, and topographical features shape the settlement patterns, population distribution, food products, human behavior, and dietary habits of a region. The Indian subcontinent, which historically included present-day India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan, is home to various regions with distinct geographical features that have significantly impacted its history.
The Indian subcontinent can be broadly classified into several primary regions based on its geographical diversity. These include:

• The Himalayas: The vast mountain range that stretches across the northern part of the subcontinent, providing natural borders and influencing the climate and culture of the surrounding areas.
• The River Plains of North India: The fertile plains located in the northern part of India, which are nourished by the waters of major rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra. These plains have been the cradle of ancient Indian civilizations and have played an essential role in the region's agricultural and economic development.
• Peninsular India: The large landmass extending into the Indian Ocean, consisting of the Deccan Plateau and the coastal plains on either side. This region has a diverse topography, climate, and natural resources, which have influenced the development of various cultures and historical events throughout the subcontinent.

The Himalayas

• The Himalayas are the largest and highest mountain range in the world, spanning approximately 2,400 kilometers in length. Not only do they serve as a barrier against invasions, they also protect the region from cold northern winds and cause the monsoon winds from the seas to result in rainfall on the northern plains. Despite the difficult terrain, several mountain passes have allowed access for determined invaders, traders, and missionaries, fostering cultural connections with Central Asia, China, and Tibet throughout history.

The Great Northern Mountains

• The Great Northern Mountains, located in the northwestern part of the Himalayas, contain important routes that link the Indian plains to Iran and Central Asia via Afghanistan. These routes pass through the Gomal, Bolan, and Khyber passes and have been used by various foreign tribes, such as the Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, and Hunas, to reach India. Similarly, these mountain passes have facilitated the spread of Buddhism and other Indian cultural elements to Afghanistan and Central Asia.

The River Plains of North India

The Himalayas provide India with three major river systems: the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra. These rivers have created fertile regions that attracted both settlers and invaders throughout history.

• The Indus plains, consisting of the Punjab and Sind regions, are vast fertile lands irrigated by the tributaries of the Indus river. Known as the 'breadbasket' of the subcontinent, these plains are vital for wheat cultivation. The strategic location and abundance of resources in the Punjab region have made it a target for foreign invaders for centuries. The Sind region encompasses the lower Indus Valley and its delta, where the Harappan culture, the first urbanized civilization in the subcontinent, developed.
• The Gangetic basin, which is more humid and receives more rainfall than the Indus region, is divided into three sub-regions: Upper, Middle, and Lower. The Upper plains of the Ganges river make up the western and southern parts of Uttar Pradesh, a region with a rich cultural history since ancient times. The Aryans inhabited this area during the Later Vedic period and practiced agriculture. The Middle Gangetic plains, characterized by higher fertility and rainfall, include eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This region saw the establishment of territorial states like Kosala, Kasi, and Magadha in the 6th century BC, as well as the birth of Jainism and Buddhism.
• The lower Gangetic plains make up the Bengal region, with its northern part irrigated by the Brahmaputra river. High rainfall in this area led to dense forests and marshy lands, initially hindering the development of settlements. However, the coastal areas have served as important communication channels with other regions of the subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Tamralipti, or Tamluk, was a significant seaport in this region that played a crucial role in commercial activities.
• Eastern India typically refers to the coastal plains formed by the Mahanadi river and other streams. The fertile coastal plains of this region facilitated the development of agriculture, society, and culture. This area came into contact with the Gangetic culture during the time of the Nandas and Mauryas (4th century BC), and by AD 1000, Orissa began to develop its distinct linguistic and cultural identity.
• Western India includes the regions of modern-day Rajasthan and Gujarat, known for their black soil which is suitable for cotton cultivation. The Thar desert of Rajasthan, surrounded by semi-arid regions, was not as fertile as the Gangetic plains, making it less favorable for cultivation. However, by the 8th century AD, the introduction of the Persian wheel (rehat) for irrigation led to the emergence of many settlements. Rajasthan is also home to the Rajput clans. In Gujarat, the fertile plains of the Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, and Tapti rivers brought prosperity, while a long coastline allowed for the development of trade contacts with other countries through its ports. The most important seaport of this region was Brigukaccha, or Bharuch (Broach).

The Peninsular India

• The Peninsular India, also known as South India, consists of the Deccan Plateau and the coastal plains. The plateau lies south of the Vindhya Mountains and is divided into three key regions, which today correspond to the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka. The northern Deccan Plateau includes a part of Maharashtra, where numerous Chalcolithic sites with evidence of copper and stone tool usage have been discovered. Karnataka comprises the southwestern Deccan, a region more suitable for human settlements due to its abundant water and resources. The Raichur Doab, known for its rice cultivation, has been called the "rice-bowl" of South India and has been a contested area among various kingdoms throughout history. These regions have been inhabited since prehistoric times.
• The plateau also features hilly terrains in the Western and Eastern Ghats. The Western Ghats rise steeply near the western coast and gradually taper eastwards into the plateau. They are intersected by several passes, such as Junnar, Kanheri, and Karle, which served as trade routes connecting the west coast ports. The Palghat Pass, located at the southern end of the Western Ghats, linked the west coast to the Kaveri Valley and played a significant role in ancient Indo-Roman trade. In contrast, the Eastern Ghats merge more gently into the plateau and coastal plains.

Peninsular India

• The coastal plains are home to the states of Tamil Nadu in the east and Kerala in the west. In Tamil Nadu, the rivers are seasonal, causing the people in the region to rely more on tank irrigation since ancient times. However, the Kaveri Delta has been a major attraction for human settlement, offering opportunities for rice cultivation and the growth of the Sangam culture during the early historical period. Ports such as Arikamedu and Kaveripattinam facilitated Indo-Roman trade in the early centuries of the Common Era. The Tamil region developed its own unique linguistic and cultural identity.

Influence of Environment

The environment plays a significant role in the settlement of people in a region, as it comprises various elements such as climate, landscape, rivers, and flora and fauna. Throughout history, environmental conditions have greatly influenced human life and development.

• For instance, semi-arid regions have been conducive to settlement and the growth of civilizations, like the Harappan civilization in Sind. The development of urban settlements can also be attributed to environmental factors, as seen in the rise of Pataliputra and the importance of Magadha in Bihar. The presence of rivers and fertile plains in these regions provided natural defense, internal communication, and a strong population base.
• The environmental conditions of a region also determine its resource potential. Forested regions are rich in timber, coastal areas yield seafood, and hilly regions with mineral ores contribute to the development of metallurgy. The extraction and use of metals for tools can improve the standard of living, as seen in Magadha, which had access to iron ore mines and sources of stone and timber.
• The environment also influences subsistence patterns, as regions with fertile river plains have alluvial soil that supports surplus production. The type of soil can determine the crop pattern, like black soil being suitable for growing cotton. Surplus production can lead to exchange activities and the development of trade.
• Areas with navigable rivers often have well-developed trade and communication networks. Ancient literature, such as the Jatakas, mentions many riverine routes in ancient India. Coastal routes and mountain passes also promote long-distance trade with different countries. For example, the Palghat pass linked the east and west coasts, facilitating the growth of Indo-Roman trade in ancient times.

In conclusion, environmental factors and physical features contribute significantly to the historical development of a region. The diverse landscape of the Indian subcontinent has led to an uneven pattern of historical progress, with resource-rich areas becoming more important while others lagged behind. It is crucial to recognize that settlement patterns and lifestyles depend on local resource utilization, which is influenced by the technological advancements in the region.

Prehistoric Cultures

• The Prehistoric period refers to the time in human history when there were no written records. As a result, our understanding of the societies and cultures that arose during this time is based solely on the artifacts uncovered in archaeological excavations. Early humans during this period relied on stone tools and implements to hunt and gather food, which is why this phase is known as the Stone Age.
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• In this lesson, we will explore the progression of prehistoric humans from hunters and gatherers to food producers. This transformation did not occur suddenly but took hundreds of thousands of years. The various stages of human development in the prehistoric period are categorized based on the types of tools and techniques used. These stages include the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age.

The Palaeolithic Cultures

• The term Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’, which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age. The archaeologists have dated this culture to the Pleistocene period about two million years ago. The Pleistocene period is the geological period of the age when the earth’s surface was covered with ice, and weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist. 
• The people lived near the hillocks and used only stone tools for hunting and their protection. However, the choice of raw material used for tool-making varied from region to region and depended upon its availability. The material used was quartzite available in hilly areas of different regions, basalt found in Maharashtra region and limestone in Karnataka region. On the basis of the nature of progress made in tool types and techniques the Palaeolithic cultures have been divided into three phases. These are –
  (i) Lower or Early Palaeolithic,
  (ii) Middle Palaeolithic,
  (iii) Upper or Late Palaeolithic.
  These phases covered a long period ranging broadly from 5,00,000 to 10,000 B.C.

(a) Tools of the Palaeolithic Period 

• The main tools of lower Palaeolithic phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers. These are called chopping tools. These were rough and heavy and were made by chipping the sides of the stones. Gradually, sharper and less heavy tools came to be made. 

Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age

Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age

Chopping Tools & Hand Axes of Lower Paleolithic Age

• The flake tools or chipped pieces were the chief tools during the middle Palaeolithic period. The tools of the upper Palaeolithic period primarily consisted of burins and scrapers.
• Let us now discuss in brief the chief features and uses of some of the tools mentioned above. In handaxes, the butt end is broader and the working edge is narrow. These were used for cutting the trees or digging the roots. The cleavers had a bifaced edge. These were meant for splitting objects like the trunks of trees. The choppers were the massive core tools with a unifacial working edge, and were used for chopping purposes. The burins were like flakes or blades. These were used for engraving on soft stones, bones or rocks. The scrapers were also made of flakes. These tools served the purpose of obtaining barks of trees and skins of animals.

(b) Geographical Distribution of the Palaeolithic Sites 

• The geographical distribution of the Palaeolithic sites suggests that this culture was spread throughout the length and breadth of the Indian subcontinent. In the north, Kashmir Valley and the Sohan Valley in Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan) have yielded Palaeolithic tools. In Rajasthan, Palaeolithic tools were found at the sites along the river Luni. In Western India, the Palaeolithic tools were also discovered from the sites of the rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and their tributaries in Gujarat. In Maharashtra, the most important sites are Nevasa on a tributary of Godavari and Patne in the Tapti river system. 
• In Madhya Pradesh, the rock shelters at Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) and Adamgarh in the district Hoshangabad have yielded tools from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period. In Uttar Pradesh, the Belan Valley (the region broadly from Allahabad to Varanasi) is the most prominent site. It shows human occupation of the area continuously from the Palaeolithic period.

Paleolithic Sites

• Towards the east, Assam and neighbouring areas including Meghalaya (Garo Hills) have yielded prehistoric artifacts. Palaeolithic tools have also been found at various sites in Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. In Peninsular India, Palaeolithic tools have been reported from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu, an important site is Attirampakkam in Chingleput region. The subsistence of the Palaeolithic cultures was based mainly on hunting animals and gathering fruits and roots. In other words, the people were primarily hunters and gatherers with no settled habitation. 
• On the basis of above discussion, we can conclude that the Palaeolithic cultures of the prehistoric period were wide spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. The study of the tools indicates a gradual progress in tool technology which must have led to better availability of resources.

(c) Subsistence Pattern 

• The Palaeolithic people practised hunting and food-gathering for their subsistence. They made simple stone tools for hunting, cutting, digging and other purposes. They led a nomadic life and migrated to places where plant and animal resources along with water were easily available.

The Mesolithic Cultures

• The Mesolithic period, also known as the Middle Stone Age, is a term derived from the Greek words 'meso' (meaning middle) and 'lithic' (meaning stone). This era represents a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages in human prehistory. Based on archaeological findings, the Mesolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent is estimated to have started around 10,000 BC. This period experienced a rise in temperature, leading to a warmer climate, melting ice from the previous era, and changes in plant and animal life.
• During this time, humans were still primarily hunters and gatherers, but they began to engage in fishing and some domestication of animals. The primary tools used by people in the Mesolithic era were microliths, which are small stone tools. Evidence of the artistic abilities of people during this period can be seen in the rock paintings found at Bhimbetka, near Bhopal.

(a) Tools of the Mesolithic Period 

• The microliths used during the mesolithic period were very small in size varying in lengths from 1 to 8 centimeters and were largely made out of chipped or flaked pieces. (Fig 2.4) Some of these tools have geometric forms such as triangles, lunates and trapezes. There tools could be tied or fixed in other objects to form an arrow or a spear.

(b) Geographical Distribution of the Mesolithic Sites 

• The distribution of Mesolithic sites indicates that the Mesolithic cultures covered almost the entire India from north to south and east to west. Important sites of this culture are Langhnaj (District Mehsana) in Gujarat; Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) in Madhya Pradesh; Chopani Mando (near Allahabad in Belan Valley) in Uttar Pradesh; Birbhanpur (District Burdwan) in West Bengal; Sanganakallu (District Bellary) in Karnataka; and Tuticorin in southern Tamil Nadu.

Tools of the Mesolithic Age

(c) Subsistence Pattern 

• The Mesolithic people still subsisted on hunting and gathering, but now there was a shift in the pattern of hunting from the big animals in the Palaeolithic period to the smaller animals which could be attacked with the help of bows and arrows. In addition to this, fishing and fowling also became important. The faunal remains of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, rat, bison, hippo, dog, fox, lizard, tortoise and fish etc. have been found from different Mesolithic sites.

The Neolithic Cultures and the Advent of Food Production

• The Neolithic era, also known as the "New Stone Age," marks the final phase of prehistory and dates back to around 8000 BC in the Indian subcontinent. The term "Neolithic" was created by Jonn Lubbock and originates from the Greek words "neo" (new) and "lithic" (stone), reflecting the development of more advanced stone tools during this time. This period was characterized by the emergence of ground and polished stone tools, which were more refined and efficient than those used in previous eras.
• One of the most significant aspects of the Neolithic era was the advent of food production, as people began to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. This shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture allowed for the establishment of more permanent settlements, giving rise to village communities.

Key features of the Neolithic culture include:

• The initiation of agricultural activities: People began to cultivate crops, which provided a more stable food source than hunting and gathering, and allowed for the development of larger, more permanent settlements.
• Domestication of animals: Animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, were tamed for use in agriculture or as a food source, further contributing to the establishment of settled communities.
• Improved stone tools: Stone tools were ground and polished, resulting in sharper edges and more efficient instruments for various tasks, such as farming and food processing.
• The introduction of pottery: The Neolithic era saw the emergence of pottery, which was used for storing and preparing food, as well as for artistic and cultural purposes.

In summary, the Neolithic era marked a significant shift in human culture, as the advent of food production and the development of more advanced stone tools facilitated the growth of settled communities and the emergence of village life.

(a) Meaning of the ‘Neolithic Revolution’

• Some times this period is termed as the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ on the basis of important changes in man’s socio-economic life. The use of the sharp and polished neolithic tools made it easier to cultivate the soil. It was accompanied by the practice of domestication of animals. These changes in turn resulted in the emergence of settled agricultural communities. The Neolithic people also produced pottery for the purpose of storing grains. 
• As the redevelopment in the Neolithic phase greatly affected the human life, some scholars have used the term “the Neolithic Revolution” to signify those changes. But most of the scholars believe that these changes though significant, should be viewed in the context of earlier progress during Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages, and thus, should be considered as ‘evolution’ rather than ‘revolution’. 

(b) Tools of the Neolithic Period 

• The Neolithic tools consist of the ground tools having smooth surfaces, and wellrounded and symmetrical shapes. The grinding made the tools sharper, polished and more effective than those in the earlier period. The ground stone tools of the Neolithic period included different types of axes called ‘celt’. Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types of bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles and earrings.

(c) Geographical Distribution of the Neolithic Sites 

• The Neolithic sites were spread over almost all the regions of Indian subcontinent.  In the northwestern region Mehrgarh is a classic site in the Kachi plains of Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh have revealed the evidence of houses built by Neolithic people. These were built of sun-dried bricks. These houses were divided into small rooms. 

Neolithic Age tools

• The evidence of cultivation of crops like wheat, barley and cotton were discovered from here. The important sites in Kashmir Valley include Burzahom and Gufkral. The dwelling pits, either circular or rectangular, at these sites form an important feature of Neolithic culture. The Belan Valley along the edge of Vindhyan plateau near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh also has many Neolithic sites such as Koldihwa and Mahagara. The Neolithic tools (both stone and bone), pottery, other artefacts, floral and faunal remains have been found from these sites. In Bihar and mid-Gangetic Valley region Chirand is the most popular Neolithic site.

• Several Neolithic sites are present covering the hills of Assam, Meghalaya and Nagaland. The tools like Neolithic celts, small ground axes alongwith the remains of pottery have been found from this area. In South India the Neolithic settlements were discovered along the rivers Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri. Some important sites are Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Hallur in Karnataka; Utnur, Nagarjunakonda, Budihal in Andhra Pradesh; and Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. These sites have yielded dwelling pits alongwith the evidence of cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals. Millet (Ragi) was one of the earliest crops cultivated by the villagers of South India.

(d) Subsistence Pattern 

• The advent of agriculture marked a significant change in Neolithic phase. The people cultivated various kinds of crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millet, lentils, etc,. depending on the geographical conditions. Agriculture gave impetus to animal domestication. Hunting still remained an important occupation. The people domesticated animals which included sheep, goat, cattle, etc. and also hunted wild animals such as boar, nilgai, gazells, etc. 
• Different kinds of stone tools were made by Neolithic people, which has already been discussed. The Neolithic people also manufactured pottery, which was initially hand made and later turned on wheel and fired in large kilns. These were the major means of storage for grains. In nutshell, we can say that the Neolithic cultures were characterised by change from hunting and gathering to cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. The new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner. 
• It led to greater availability of food resources as well as to an increase in population, which in turn resulted in the increase in the number of village settlements. The Neolithic cultures created the conditions which helped in the growth of towns in the later period.

The Prehistoric Art

• Rock paintings were a significant and unique aspect of the Mesolithic people, although their origins can be traced back to the Upper Palaeolithic period. These paintings were created on the walls of rock shelters, with the majority of them discovered at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. These artworks provide valuable insights into the social and economic lives of the Mesolithic people. The primary subjects of these paintings include hunting, fishing, and gathering food. Animals such as boars, buffaloes, monkeys, and nilgais are frequently depicted in these artworks. The paintings also illustrate social activities like childbirth, child-rearing, and burial ceremonies. The scenes of group hunting suggest that Mesolithic people lived in small communities.

Prehistoric Art

• In conclusion, the Mesolithic society was more stable than the one in the Palaeolithic age, although hunting and gathering continued to be their main focus.

Chalcolithic Period: The Beginnings of Copper Metallurgy

• The Chalcolithic period is primarily known for its polychrome painted pottery, which includes distinct forms such as "fenestrated pottery" (pots with openings in the walls for burning incense), large storage jars, and serving jars with spouts. Stone tools from this era consist of adzes, chisels, picks, and chipped stone tools with central perforations.
• During this time, farmers raised domestic animals like sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs, and their diet was supplemented by hunting and fishing. Milk and milk by-products played a significant role, along with fruits from trees such as fig and olive. Chalcolithic farmers grew crops like barley, wheat, and pulses.
• Most goods were produced and consumed locally, but these societies also engaged in limited long-distance trade. Some of the items traded included figurines of burdened animals, copper and silver ores, basalt bowls, timber, and resins.

Chronology

• The Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age, can be divided into several stages based on its geographical spread and development.
• During the early stage (5500-3500 BC), the Chalcolithic culture emerged in the Near East, specifically in Anatolia, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The developed stage (4500-3500 BC) saw the spread of this culture to Southeastern Europe, followed by the Carpathian Basin, East-central Europe, Southwest Germany, and Eastern Switzerland.
• The late stage (3500-3000 BC) marked the arrival of the Chalcolithic culture in the Central and Western Mediterranean regions, including North and Central Italy, Southern France, Eastern France, and Western Switzerland. Finally, the terminal stage (3200-2000 BC) witnessed the spread of this culture to the Iberian Peninsula.
• The expansion of the Chalcolithic culture involved both migration of people and the adoption of new technologies and material culture by local indigenous populations.

Houses and Burial Styles

• Houses built by Chalcolithic farmers were made of stone or mudbrick, with a common architectural style being chain buildings. These were a series of rectangular houses connected by shared walls on the shorter ends, typically consisting of no more than six houses. Researchers believe that these structures likely housed extended farming families living in close proximity. In larger settlements, another common layout involved rooms arranged around a central courtyard, possibly promoting a similar social arrangement. Not all houses followed these patterns, however, with some trapezoid and circular structures also identified.
• Burial practices during the Chalcolithic period varied significantly among different groups. Some of these practices included single interments, jar burials, small above-ground ossuaries shaped like boxes, and even tombs carved into rocks. In some instances, older burials were exhumed and placed into family or clan vaults as part of secondary burial practices. Additionally, the careful arrangement of skeletal materials, known as bone stacking, has been observed in some sites. Burial locations also varied, with some situated outside of communities while others were found within the houses themselves.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Indian subcontinent's diverse geography and environmental conditions played a critical role in shaping its history and the development of its ancient civilizations. The prehistoric cultures, including the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods, saw significant advancements in tool technology, subsistence patterns, and human settlements. The Neolithic period marked the beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals, which led to the emergence of settled communities and laid the foundation for the growth of towns and cities in later periods. The varied geographical regions and the resources they provided greatly influenced the development of various civilizations, their cultural contacts, and trade activities throughout history.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of The Geographical Setting & Pre-historic Cultures of India

What are the main geographical regions of the Indian subcontinent in ancient times?

The main geographical regions of the Indian subcontinent in ancient times include the Himalayas, the River Plains of North India, and Peninsular India.

What were the main tools used during the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods?

During the Palaeolithic period, the main tools used were handaxes, cleavers, and choppers. In the Mesolithic period, microliths or small stone tools were used. The Neolithic period saw the use of ground and polished stone tools such as different types of axes called 'celt' and various bone objects.

What does the term 'Neolithic Revolution' signify?

The term 'Neolithic Revolution' signifies the significant changes in human socio-economic life during the Neolithic period, marked by the beginning of agriculture, domestication of animals, use of polished stone tools, and the production of pottery.

How did the environment and geography influence the history and settlement patterns in the Indian subcontinent?

The physical features and environment of a region determined the settlement pattern, population spread, food products, human behavior, and dietary habits. The fertility of the soil, availability of water resources, and topographical features played a major role in the development of cultures and urbanization in different regions.

What were the key characteristics of the Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent?

The key characteristics of the Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent include the beginning of agricultural activities, domestication of animals, grinding and polishing of stone tools, and the use of pottery.