Revision Institutions of Higher Education in ancient India - Higher Education System Notes

Introduction

Education in India underwent transformative changes during the medieval and Pre-independence Era.

EducationThe medieval era witnessed the introduction of Islamic education brought by Arab and Central Asian influences, which emphasized languages like Arabic and Persian and established educational institutions aligned with Islamic principles. 

Pre-independence India further saw the establishment of universities and educational commissions that standardized and expanded educational opportunities nationwide, setting the stage for the contemporary educational framework in India.

Education in Medieval Period

The medieval period in India witnessed a significant transformation in education with the arrival of Muslim influences from Arab and Central Asian regions. This era, beginning around the 12th century, marked the integration of Islamic cultural practices with the existing Hindu and Buddhist educational traditions.

Arab and Central Asian Influence: Arab and Central Asian traders, scholars, and invaders introduced Islamic education to the Indian subcontinent. This included the propagation of Arabic and Persian languages, which became prominent in scholarly and administrative circles.

Impact of Conquests: Military campaigns led by Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 1001) and Muhammad Ghauri (A.D. 1175) resulted in the destruction of many Hindu and Buddhist educational institutions, particularly in North India. This conquest contributed to the decline of indigenous educational systems.

Prominence of Languages: Urdu, derived from Persian and Arabic, gained importance during the Delhi Sultanate period as a language of governance and literature. Educational institutions (maktabs and madrassas) were often attached to mosques, where religious and legal education based on Islamic principles was imparted.

Educational Patronage: Muslim rulers such as the Delhi Sultanate and subsequent dynasties provided patronage to educational institutions. They established libraries, madrassas (Islamic schools), and centers of learning that facilitated the study of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and literature. These institutions played a crucial role in the preservation and propagation of Islamic knowledge in the region.

Education in Modern Period

The modernization of education in India began with European influences, particularly under British colonial rule starting from the early 17th century. This period saw the establishment of a formal system of education that aimed to serve colonial administrative needs while also influencing Indian society and culture.

European Influence: The British East India Company, initially established for trade, gradually expanded its influence over Indian territories. Alongside their political control, the British introduced Western-style education systems to India. This included the establishment of English-medium schools and universities modeled on British educational institutions.

Agents of Modern Education: The development of modern education in India was driven by three main agents:

• British Government: Established educational institutions to train Indian bureaucrats and officials who could assist in colonial administration. The emphasis was on English education to create a class of Indians familiar with Western ideas and governance.
• Christian Missionaries: Set up schools and colleges to spread Christianity and European cultural values among the Indian population.Christian CollegeMissionary schools played a significant role in providing education to Indians from diverse social backgrounds.
• Indian Intellectuals and Reformers: Responded to colonial education policies by advocating for reforms that would integrate traditional Indian knowledge systems with modern education. Reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy promoted social and educational reforms aimed at modernizing Indian society.

Educational Reforms: The British government introduced various educational policies and commissions to structure and regulate the education system in India:

• Charter Act of 1813: Introduced by the British Parliament, this act allocated funds for the promotion of education in India, marking the beginning of state intervention in education.
• Macaulay's Minute (1835): Proposed English education as a medium to create a class of Indians "Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect." Lord MacaulayThis policy aimed to produce a class of Western-educated Indians who would assist in colonial governance.
• Wood's Despatch (1854): Laid the foundation for a comprehensive education system in India, advocating for the establishment of universities and the promotion of vernacular languages alongside English.

Evolution of Higher Learning and Research in Pre-Independence Period

The advancement of higher education in India dates back to British rule. Several committees, commissions, and acts were established by the British. Some significant ones include:

Charter Act, 1813

• The Charter Act of 1813 marked the initial step towards making education a government objective. 
• It allocated a sum of 1 lakh rupees for educating Indians under British rule and also facilitated missionaries' official entry into India. 
• The Act emphasized the promotion of modern scientific knowledge. In 1817, Raja Rammohan Roy established Calcutta College, which provided English education in Western humanities and sciences.

Elphinstone Report, 1823

• This report led to the creation of the Elphinstone Institution in Bombay in 1834, initiating higher education in India. 
• It recommended appointing district examination officers, school supervisors, and training teachers.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute, 1835

• In 1835, Lord William Bentinck decided to introduce English as the medium of instruction. 
• Macaulay’s minutes advocated for English education over traditional Indian learning, deeming oriental culture as ‘defective’ and ‘unholy’. 
• He aimed to educate a select group of upper and middle-class students, believing that education would eventually trickle down to the masses, a concept known as the infiltration theory. 
• He envisioned creating a class of Indians who were Indian in appearance but English in taste and affiliation, significantly contributing to modern education.

Wood’s Despatch, 1854

• Charles Wood’s despatch in 1854 is considered the Magna Carta of English education in India, presenting the first comprehensive plan for spreading education in India. 
• It led to the establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857, and education departments in all provinces. 
• The Bethune School in Calcutta, founded in 1849 by J.E.D Bethune, was the first school for educating women. 
• Additionally, an Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar) and an Engineering Institute at Roorkee were established.

Hunter Commission, 1882-1883

• The British Government appointed a commission under WW Hunter in 1882 to review educational progress since the 1854 Despatch. 
• The Hunter Commission recommended that local and municipal boards be responsible for primary education and encouraged grants-in-aid for private participation in secondary education. 
• It emphasized female education, particularly outside presidency towns, and segregated primary from higher education. 
• Teaching-cum-examining universities, such as Punjab University (1882) and Allahabad University (1887), were established.

Universities Commission, 1902

• On 27th January 1902, a University Commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh was appointed by Lord Curzon to assess the condition and prospects of Indian universities and suggest improvements. 
• The Indian Universities Act of 1904, resulting from the commission’s recommendations, aimed to enhance education quality and system oversight. 
• The Governor-General was empowered to determine university limits and affiliations.

National Council of Education, 1906

• Indian nationalists in Bengal established the National Council of Education in 1906 to promote science and technology as part of the Swadeshi Industrialisation Movement. 
• This organization aimed to provide education on national lines, employing national teachers and a curriculum rooted in national cultural heritage. 
• It founded the Bengal National College and Bengal Technical Institute, later merging to form Jadavpur University.

Government Resolution on Education Policy, 1913

• The 1913 resolution advocated for smaller, residential, and teaching universities based on linguistic divisions. 
• Universities such as Patna, Lucknow, Rangoon, Aligarh, and Banaras were established due to local patriotism or religious reasons. 
• The government, while not committing to compulsory education, encouraged provincial governments to offer free elementary education to poorer and backward sections.

Saddler Commission, 1917-1919

• The Calcutta University Commission, also known as the Saddler Commission, aimed to address Calcutta University’s issues, with its recommendations extending to other universities. 
• It proposed that improving university education required enhancing secondary education first, leading to the 10+2+3 system and the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE). 
• The commission also recommended scientific and technological education for females and expanded teacher training.

Education under Dyarchy, 1919

• The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms shifted education to provincial ministries, reducing direct government involvement and financial grants. 
• Despite financial constraints, education grew through philanthropic efforts.

Hartog Committee, 1929

• An increase in educational institutions led to a decline in standards. 
• The Hartog Committee was formed to assess educational development, emphasizing primary education and recommending vocational courses for average students post-VIII standard.

Sapru Committee, 1934

• The United Province Government appointed the Sapru Committee to investigate unemployment causes, attributing mass unemployment to an education system focused on exams and degrees rather than practical life skills.

Wood and Abbott Report, 1937

• Reviving CABE in 1935, this report proposed reorganization of the educational system, particularly vocational education. 
• In 1937, the Abbott-Wood Report recommended English as the medium of instruction at the university level, polytechnic education, and vocational teacher-training colleges, leading to the establishment of a Vocational Training College in Delhi.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, 1937

• The Congress organized a National Conference on Education in Wardha in October 1937. 
• The Zakir Hussain Committee developed a national scheme for basic education or Nai Talim, based on Gandhiji’s principle of ‘learning through activity’.

Sergeant Plan of Education, 1944

Also known as the Scheme of Post-War Educational Development, the Sergeant Plan was developed by CABE in 1944. It recommended:

• Pre-primary education for ages 3-6.
• Free, universal, and compulsory elementary education for ages 6-11.
• A three-year university course post-higher secondary.
• Two types of high schools: technical/vocational and academic.
• Establishment of a University Grants Commission, based on the University Grants Committee founded in 1945.