Understanding Partitions Class 12 History

Historical Background of Partition

1. Separate Electorate (1909)

   • Background: The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 introduced separate electorates based on religion, primarily aiming to provide political representation to various communities in British India. This system allowed Muslims to vote for Muslim candidates and Christians for Christian candidates, fostering religious divisions in the political landscape.
   • Impact: The introduction of separate electorates deepened communal divisions, as it laid the groundwork for politicians to exploit religious identities for electoral gains. This move marked an early step in the politicization of religion in the Indian subcontinent.

2. Colonial Government Policies (1919)

   • Background: The colonial government's repressive measures, particularly the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, where British troops killed hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians, led to widespread discontent. The government's handling of the aftermath, including the implementation of the repressive Rowlatt Act, further fueled anti-British sentiments.
   • Impact: The resentment against colonial rule became a unifying factor for Indians across religious lines. However, the divisive policies of the British also contributed to the rise of communal tensions, as different communities responded differently to colonial actions.

3. Consolidation of Communal Identities (1920s-1930s)

   • Events:
     1. Music before Ramjasid: The playing of music before mosques became a contentious issue, leading to tensions between Hindus and Muslims. It symbolized the growing cultural and religious divides.
     2. Cow Protection Movement: The movement, fueled by Hindu sentiments against cow slaughter, further polarized communities and intensified religious identities.
     3. Shuddhi Movement of Arya Samaj: Aimed at reconverting converted Hindus back to Hinduism, this movement added to the communal discord by challenging the religious demography.
        
        Arya Sama
   • Impact: These events heightened religious sensitivities, contributing to the solidification of communal identities. The reaction from different communities exacerbated tensions and created an environment conducive to further divisions.

4. Spread of Tabligh and Tanzim (Propaganda and Organization)

   • Background: The rapid dissemination of religious propaganda and organizational efforts by various religious groups, particularly among Muslims, heightened apprehensions among other religious communities.
   • Impact: The fear and mistrust generated by these activities added to the communal tensions. The perception of communities as threats to each other's existence became more pronounced, leading to a growing sense of insecurity and hostility.

5. Communal Riots

   • Background: Communal riots during this period, often triggered by religious or political events, deepened the rifts between communities. The violence and loss of life reinforced negative perceptions and fueled further animosity.
   • Impact: Communal riots not only resulted in immediate human suffering but also left lasting scars on inter-community relations. They exacerbated existing tensions and contributed to an environment where the idea of a separate nation for Muslims gained traction.

Why and How Did Partition Happen?

1. Provincial Elections of 1937 and Congress Ministries

• The provincial elections of 1937 were a significant political event in British India. The Congress Party, led by leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, won the majority in five provinces and formed the government in seven out of eleven provinces. This marked a significant shift in Indian politics as Congress took charge of several key regions.

• In the reserved constituencies, which were set aside for marginalized groups, both Congress and the Muslim League faced challenges. The Muslim League performed poorly in these areas, leading to a sense of disillusionment among its members.

• In the United Province (present-day Uttar Pradesh), the Muslim League expressed interest in forming a coalition government with Congress. However, Congress, having an absolute majority, rejected the proposal. This rejection fueled a perception among Muslim League members that they would be politically marginalized as a minority.
  Provincial election of 1937

2. League's Social Expansion and Congress Failure

• The 1930s saw the Muslim League actively working to expand its social base, recognizing its limited support. The League aimed to strengthen its presence in Muslim-dominated areas to become a more influential political force.

• Congress and its ministries, despite their dominance, failed to effectively counter the propaganda and divisive tactics employed by the Muslim League. The failure to win over the Muslim masses contributed to the deepening divide between Hindus and Muslims.

• The emergence and growth of organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Hindu Mahasabha played a role in exacerbating religious differences. These groups focused on Hindu nationalist ideologies, further polarizing communities along religious lines.
  Veer Savarkar of Hindu Mahasabha

3. The 'Pakistan' Resolution (1940)

• On March 23, 1940, the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, often referred to as the 'Pakistan' Resolution. This resolution demanded autonomy for Muslim-majority areas within the subcontinent.

• Notably, the resolution did not explicitly mention the creation of a separate nation or partition. Instead, it emphasized the idea of Muslim-majority regions having a measure of self-rule.

4. Suddenness of Partition

• The demand for Pakistan, as articulated in the 1940 resolution, did not initially represent a clear and unequivocal call for a separate nation. Some leaders, including Jinnah, may have seen it as a negotiating tool to secure political concessions for Muslims.

• The swift transition from the demand for autonomy to the actual partition within seven years was surprising. The factors contributing to this abrupt shift include changing political dynamics, communal tensions, and the failure of negotiations between different parties.
  Muhammad Ali Jinnah

5. Post-War Developments (1945-1946)

• After World War II, discussions between the British, Congress, and the Muslim League took place to determine the future political structure of India. However, these negotiations faced challenges due to Jinnah's steadfast demands regarding representation and communal issues.

• In the 1946 provincial elections, Congress performed well in general constituencies, while the Muslim League secured a significant majority of Muslim votes. This electoral success strengthened the League's position as the primary political representative of Muslims.

• The League's dominance in the reserved Muslim constituencies further solidified its claim as the leader of Muslim interests.
  
  

  Question for Chapter Notes: Understanding Partitions

  Try yourself:

  What was the outcome of Jinnah's theory of two states based on religion?

  • A.

    East Bengal separated from West Pakistan and became an independent country.
  • B.

    East Bengal remained a part of West Pakistan.
  • C.

    East Bengal joined India after partition.
  • D.

    East Bengal formed a separate state within Pakistan.

  Explanation

  - Jinnah's theory of two states based on religion aimed to create separate Muslim-majority states in the subcontinent.
  - However, this theory failed when East Bengal, which was part of Pakistan, separated from West Pakistan.
  - In 1971, East Bengal declared independence and became Bangladesh.
  - This marked a significant deviation from the original idea of creating two separate states for Muslims.
  - The separation of East Bengal highlighted the challenges and complexities of implementing religious-based partition.

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6. A Possible Alternative to Partition (Cabinet Mission, 1946)

• The Cabinet Mission, comprising British officials, proposed a political framework for India in 1946. The plan suggested a united India with a three-tier confederation, categorizing provinces into sections based on religious majority.

• Although initially agreed upon, disagreements arose over the compulsory nature of grouping and the right to secede. The Muslim League insisted on the right to secede, while Congress favored giving provinces the choice to join the groups voluntarily.

• These disagreements eventually led to the breakdown of talks, leaving the issue of a united India unresolved.

7. Towards Partition (1946-1947)

• After the withdrawal of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League, under Jinnah's leadership, decided to resort to direct action to press for its demand for Pakistan. August 16, 1946, was declared "direct action day," leading to widespread riots, particularly in Calcutta and other parts of Northern India.

• The communal violence during this period heightened tensions between Hindus and Muslims, making the prospect of a united India more challenging.

• In March 1947, Congress reluctantly accepted the division of Punjab and Bengal along religious lines, marking a significant step towards the eventual partition.
  Calcutta riots of 1946

8. Opposition to Partition

• While Congress leaders sensed the inevitability of partition after the failed negotiations, figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan continued to oppose the idea. They viewed partition as tragic but avoidable, emphasizing the need for communal harmony and a united India.

• Despite their opposition, the communal violence and political circumstances eventually led to the partition of British India into the independent nations of India and Pakistan in 1947.