Chapter Notes: Arts of the Mauryan Period

Introduction

The sixth century BCE saw the rise of new religious and social movements in the Gangetic valley, especially Buddhism and Jainism, which were part of the Shraman tradition. These religions gained popularity because they rejected the varna and jati system of Hinduism. During this time, Magadha became a strong kingdom, and by the fourth century BCE, the Mauryan Empire was established. 

In the third century BCE, Emperor Ashoka became the most powerful Mauryan ruler and supported Buddhism. People practiced different forms of worship, including the worship of Yakshas (nature spirits) and mother goddesses, showing that religion had many forms. Over time, Buddhism became the most influential movement, and Yaksha worship continued, blending with both Buddhism and Jainism.

Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Architecture

Pillars

• Construction of stupas and viharas became a part of the Buddhist monastic tradition, but during this period, stone pillars, rock-cut caves, and sculptures were also created.
• The tradition of pillar construction existed earlier in the Achaemenian Empire, but Mauryan pillars were distinct.
• Mauryan pillars were monolithic (rock-cut from a single block), displaying excellent stone-carving skills, while Achaemenian pillars were built in parts by masons.
• Ashoka erected several stone pillars across north India, inscribed with his edicts.
• The capital figures-such as the bull, lion, and elephant-were carved on the top of the pillars, placed on square or circular abacuses decorated with stylised lotuses.
• Important pillars have been discovered at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Rampurva in Bihar, and at Sankisa and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Sarnath Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculpture and now serves as India's National Emblem.
• It features four lions standing on a circular abacus, carved with figures of a horse, bull, lion, and elephant, symbolising the Dhammachakrapravartana-the first sermon of the Buddha.

Monumental Images

• Monumental sculptures of Yakshas, Yakhinis, and animals, along with pillar columns and rock-cut caves from the 3rd century BCE, have been discovered in various parts of India.
• These artworks reflect the popularity of Yaksha worship, which later became part of Buddhist and Jaina art.
• Large standing statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis have been found at Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
• A key feature of these sculptures is their highly polished surface and realistic facial details, including rounded cheeks and natural body forms.
• The Didarganj Yakshi from Patna is one of the finest examples, known for its graceful posture, tall build, and smooth polish.
• Terracotta figurines from the same period show a simpler and different body style compared to the stone sculptures.
• A rock-cut elephant sculpture at Dhauli (Odisha) demonstrates rhythmic modelling and carries an Ashokan rock edict.
• The Lomus Rishi Cave at Barabar Hills (near Gaya, Bihar)is another major example of this period.
  • It features a semi-circular chaitya arch at the entrance with an elephant frieze in high relief.
  • The interior includes a rectangular hall with a circular chamber at the back.
  • The cave was donated by Ashoka to the Ajivika sect.
• These works highlight the technical skill and aesthetic refinement of Mauryan artists in stone carving and figure modelling.

Stupas and Viharas

1. Rise of Stupa and Vihara Construction

• The growing influence of Buddhism and Jainism led to large-scale construction of stupas (relic mounds) and viharas (monasteries) across the Indian subcontinent.
• Though these structures mainly belonged to Buddhist and Jaina traditions, some sites also show sculptural depictions of Brahmanical deities, indicating religious coexistence and cultural integration.

2. Major Sites of Stupas

• According to Buddhist textual traditions, stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha in several locations:
  • Bihar: Rajagraha, Vaishali, Vethadipa, and Pava
  • Uttar Pradesh: Kushinagar and Pippalvina
  • Nepal: Kapilavastu, Allakappa, and Ramagrama
• Other stupas are also mentioned outside the Gangetic valley, such as in Avanti (Madhya Pradesh) and Gandhara (modern Pakistan-Afghanistan region), showing the wider spread of Buddhism.

3. Architectural Examples

• The earliest example of a stupa's structural form is seen at Bairat (Rajasthan), dating back to the 3rd century BCE.
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the most famous monuments of this period.
  • Originally built by Emperor Ashoka using bricks.
  • Later enlarged and encased in stone with additional structures such as gateways and railings.
• These stupas demonstrate the continuity and evolution of Buddhist architecture over centuries.

4. Pattern of Patronage

• By the 2nd century BCE, inscriptional evidence shows the collective nature of patronage.
• The donors included:
  • Lay devotees and gahapatis (wealthy householders).
  • Traders and merchants, who often mentioned their places of origin on inscriptions.
  • Guilds (shrenis), showing the involvement of organised economic groups.
  • Kings and elites, although royal patronage was comparatively rare.
• This indicates that Buddhist monuments were community projects, supported by people from diverse social backgrounds.

5. Artisans and Collective Work

• The construction of stupas and viharas was a collective effortinvolving many groups.
  • Inscriptions record the names of artisans, such as:
  • Kanha at Pitalkhora caves and his disciple Balaka at Kondane caves (Maharashtra).
• The texts also refer to various categories of craftsmen-stone carvers, carpenters, goldsmiths, and polishers-showing specialisation of labour.
• Often, only a specific part of a monument was funded by a particular donor, illustrating cooperative patronage.

6. Evolution of Stupa Architecture

• Over time, stupas became more elaborate:
  • The circumambulatory path (pradakshina-patha) was enclosed by decorative railings.
  • Sculptural decorations were added to the drum, gateways, and railings.
• Despite changes in decoration and scale, the basic structure remained constant:
  • Cylindrical drum, hemispherical dome (anda), square harmika, and umbrella-like chhatra on top.
• The addition of toranas (gateways) and carved panels created new opportunities for artistic and narrative expression.

7. Symbolic Representation of Buddha

• During the early phase of Buddhism, the Buddha was not depicted in human form.
• Instead, he was represented through symbols such as:
  • The stupa itself (signifying his presence).
  • Footprints, lotus throne, and wheel (chakra) - representing his teachings and spiritual journey.
• These symbolic depictions reflected reverence and spiritual abstraction rather than physical portrayal.

8. Emergence of Narrative Art

• Gradually, Buddhist art began to include narrative scenes illustrating the life of the Buddha and Jataka tales.
• Artists used three main narrative techniques:
  • Synoptic narrative: different events shown together in one frame.
  • Continuous narrative: same character repeated in different actions within one scene.
  • Episodic narrative: separate panels for different episodes.
• Commonly depicted events from Buddha's life include:
  • Birth, Great Renunciation, Enlightenment, First Sermon (Dhammachakrapravartana), and Mahaparinibbana (final liberation).

9. Depiction of Jataka Stories

• Jataka tales, representing Buddha's previous births, became equally important themes.
• Frequently illustrated stories include: Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpandita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, and Shama Jataka.
• These stories conveyed moral and ethical lessons, while also linking popular storytelling with religious art.

10. Cultural Significance: The wide geographical spread and collective patronage of stupas and viharas highlight:

• The popular appeal of Buddhism beyond royal circles.
• The integration of art, faith, and economy through donations and guild support.
• The evolution of Indian sculpture and architecture, paving the way for later religious monuments in India.

Lion Capital, Sarnath
One of the finest examples of sculpture from the Mauryan period; discovered at Sarnath, near Varanasi.

• Built by Ashoka in commemoration of the first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the Buddha at Sarnath.
• The capital consisted of five parts: shaft (broken), a lotus bell base, a drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise, four majestic addorsed lions, and the crowning element, Dharamchakra (broken).
• The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base is the National Emblem of Independent India.
• Four lions firmly seated back to back on a circular abacus, with a depiction of a chakra (wheel) having twenty-four spokes in all four directions, and a bull, a horse, an elephant, and a lion between every chakra.
• The lions have impressive and massive figures, with strong facial musculature and sharp lines of the mane.
• The surface of the sculpture is heavily polished, and the weight of the body of each lion is firmly shown by the stretched muscles of the feet.
• The circular abacus is supported by an inverted lotus capital, and each petal of the lotus is sculpted keeping in mind its density.
• There are no limitations of fixed viewpoints, as the sculpture was conceived to be viewed from all sides
• A lion capital has also been found at Sanchi, but it is in a dilapidated condition.

Didargunj Yakshini

• Life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk) from Didargunj near modern Patna, made in sandstone with a polished surface.
• The chauri is held in the right hand, while the left hand is broken.
• The image shows sophistication in the treatment of form and medium, and the sculptor's sensitivity towards the round muscular body is clearly visible.
• The face has round, fleshy cheeks, while the neck is relatively small in proportion; the eyes, nose, and lips are sharp.
• Folds of muscles are properly rendered, and the necklace beads are in full round, hanging to the belly.
• The tightening of the garment around the belly creates the effect of a bulging belly, and every fold of the garment on the legs is shown by protruding lines clinging to the legs, creating a somewhat transparent effect.
• Thick bell-ornaments adorn the feet, and the image stands firmly on its legs.
• Heaviness in the torso is depicted by heavy breasts.
• The back is equally impressive, with the hair tied in a knot at the back and bare back, while drapery at the back covers both legs.
• The flywhisk in the right hand is shown with incised lines continued on the back of the image.