Passage Based Questions: Social Institutions - Continuity and Change | Sociology Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Passage - 1

Passage:
“As is well-known, the English word ‘caste’ is actually a borrowing from the Portuguese casta, meaning pure breed. The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages (beginning with the ancient Sanskrit) is referred to by two distinct terms, varna and jati. Varna, literally ‘colour’, is the name given to a four-fold division of society into brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra, though this excludes a significant section of the population composed of the ‘outcastes’, foreigners, slaves, conquered peoples and others, sometimes referred to as the panchamas or fifth category. Jati is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from inanimate objects to plants, animals and human beings. Jati is the word most commonly used to refer to the institution of caste in Indian languages, though it is interesting to note that, increasingly, Indian language speakers are beginning to use the English word ‘caste’.”

Q1: Describe any two characteristics of the caste system.
Ans: The most commonly cited defining features of caste are the following:
(i) Caste is determined by birth - a child is "born into" the caste of its parents. Caste is never a matter of choice. One can never change one's caste, leave it, or choose not to join it, although there are instances where a person may be expelled from their caste.
(ii) Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage. Caste groups are "endogamous", i.e., marriage is restricted to members of the group.

Q2: What does the term "Dominant caste" refer to?
Ans: "Dominant caste" is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large population and were granted land rights by the partial land reforms affected after Independence. The land reforms took away rights from the upper castes who were "absentee landlords" in the sense that they played no part in the agricultural economy but just claimed rent. They mostly lived in towns and cities.

Q3: Differentiate between Jati and Varna.
Ans: The Varna system is an all-India system. The 4-Varna system can be seen everywhere in India. But Jati is a regional or local institution. A Jati found in one area of India may not be found in another area. The Jati chain is different in each area. The main difference between Jati and Varna is in the number. Varnas are 4, but there are hundreds of Jatis.

Q4: What contributions did Jyotirao Phule make?
Ans: Jyotirao Phule, later known as Mahatma Phule, started a Social Reformation Movement in Maharashtra.
(i) He led the fight against Brahmin domination and the Jati system.
(ii) He worked for the education of the lower castes and women.

Passage - 2

Direction: Read the following text and answer the questions.

Passage:

“Tribe’ is a modern term for communities that are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of the sub-continent. Tribes in India have generally been defined in terms of what they were not. Tribes were communities that did not practice a religion with a written text; did not have a state or political form of the normal kind; did not have sharp class divisions; and, most important, they did not have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants. The term was introduced in the colonial era. The use of a single term for a very disparate set of communities was more a matter of administrative convenience… In terms of positive characteristics, tribes have been classified according to their ‘permanent’ and ‘acquired’ traits.”

Q1: What are some of the permanent characteristics of Tribes?
Ans: The permanent features of Tribes include their region, language, special physical features, and environmental habitat. The Tribals in India are scattered across many regions of the country. However, there are some concentrations in certain areas.

Q2: How are Tribal groups categorized based on language?
Ans: Tribal groups are categorized into four language groups:
(a) Indo-Aryan
(b) Dravidian
(c) Austric
(d) Tibeto-Burman

Q3: What are the main reasons for the rise of Tribal Movements?
Ans: There are mainly two reasons:
(i) Issues related to the control of land, forests, and other important economic resources.
(ii) Problems connected with the racial and cultural identity of the Tribals.

Q4: How has National Development impacted the tribes?
Ans: The loss of forests due to the construction of large dams, factories, and mines, which most tribal communities depended on, has been a major blow.

Passage - 3

Direction: Read the following text and answer the questions.

Passage:
“The structure of the family can be studied both as a social institution in itself and also in its relationship to other social institutions of society. In itself, a family can be defined as nuclear or extended. It can be male-headed or female-headed. The line of descent can be matrilineal or patrilineal. This internal structure of the family is usually related to other structures of society, namely political, economic, cultural etc. Thus the migration of men from the villages of the Himalayan region can lead to an unusual proportion of women-headed families in the village. Or the work schedules of young parents in the software industry in India may lead to an increasing number of grandparents moving in as caregivers to young grandchildren. The composition of the family and its structure thereby changes. And these changes can be understood in relation to other changes in society. The family (the private sphere) is linked to the economic, political, cultural, and educational (the public) spheres.”

Q1: How can families be categorized based on authority?
Ans: Families can be categorized into patriarchal and matriarchal. In patriarchal families, men wield authority, with the father being the leader. In matriarchal families, women wield the authority, with the mother being the leader.

Q2: What forms can families take based on residence, rules of inheritance, and authority?
Ans: Families can be categorized based on:

• Residence: Matrilocal and Patrilocal
• Rules of inheritance: Matrilineal and Patrilineal
• Exercise of dominance or authority: Patriarchal

Q3: What are the special features of a family’s internal structure?
Ans: The features of a family’s internal structure include:
(i) It can be nuclear or joint.
(ii) It can be patriarchal or matriarchal.
(iii) The hereditary rights can be paternal or maternal.

Q4: Describe the types of family structures based on the rule of residence.
Ans: Based on the rule of residence, there are two types of family structures:
(i) Matrilocal: This condition occurs when the boy moves to live with the girl and her family after marriage.
(ii) Patrilocal: This condition occurs when the girl moves to live with the boy and his family upon marriage.

Passage - 4

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Opinions also differ on the exact age of the caste system. It is generally agreed, though, that the four varna classification is roughly three thousand years old. However, the ‘caste system’ stood for different things in different time periods, so that it is misleading to think of the same system continuing for three thousand years. In its earliest phase, in the late Vedic period roughly between 900 — 500 BC, the caste system was really a varna system and consisted of only four major divisions. These divisions were not very elaborate or very rigid, and they were not determined by birth.

Q1: What is the approximate age of the four varna classification system in the caste system?
Ans:

• The four varna classification system in the caste system is roughly three thousand years old.

Q2: How did the caste system evolve over time in terms of its complexity and rigidity during its earliest phase?
Ans:

• During its earliest phase, in the late Vedic period (900 — 500 BC), the caste system was a varna system with only four major divisions.
• These divisions were not very elaborate or rigid, and they were not determined by birth.

Q3: Why is it misleading to think of the caste system as a consistent and unchanged system over the span of three thousand years?
Ans:

• The caste system, over time, stood for different things in different time periods.
• In its earliest phase, it was a varna system with only four major divisions and was not very elaborate or rigid.
• Therefore, it is misleading to assume the same system has continued for three thousand years.

Passage - 5

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Theoretically, the caste system can be understood as the combination of two sets of principles, one based on difference and separation and the other on wholism and hierarchy. Each caste is supposed to be different from – and is therefore strictly separated from – every other caste. Many of the scriptural rules of caste are thus designed to prevent the mixing of castes – rules ranging from marriage, food sharing and social interaction to occupation. On the other hand, these different and separated castes do not have an individual existence – they can only exist in relation to a larger whole, the totality of society consisting of all castes. Further, this societal whole or system is a hierarchical rather than egalitarian system.

Q1: What are the two fundamental principles that form the theoretical basis of the caste system?
Ans:

• The caste system is based on two sets of principles: one emphasizing difference and separation between castes, and the other focusing on wholism and hierarchy within the societal system.

Q2: How are castes supposed to relate to one another according to the principles of the caste system?
Ans:

• Each caste is strictly separated from every other caste, and various scriptural rules govern aspects such as marriage, food sharing, social interaction, and occupation to prevent the mixing of castes.

Q3: In what manner do castes exist within the larger societal framework, and what kind of system does this create?
Ans:

• Castes do not have individual existence but only exist in relation to the larger societal whole, comprising all castes.
• The societal whole or system is hierarchical rather than egalitarian, emphasizing the hierarchy of castes within the broader social structure.

Passage - 6

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Scholars have agreed that all major social institutions and specially the institution of caste underwent major changes during the colonial period. In fact, some scholars argue that what we know today as caste is more a product of colonialism than of ancient Indian tradition. Not all of the changes brought about were intended or deliberate. Initially, the British administrators began by trying to understand the complexities of caste in an effort to learn how to govern the country efficiently. Some of these efforts took the shape of very methodical and intensive surveys and reports on the ‘customs and manners’ of various tribes and castes all over the country.

Q1: How did the institution of caste change during the colonial period, according to scholars?
Ans:

• Major changes occurred in all major social institutions, particularly in the institution of caste, during the colonial period.
• Some scholars argue that what we recognize today as caste is more a product of colonialism than of ancient Indian tradition.

Q2: What was the British administration's initial approach towards understanding caste during the colonial period?
Ans:

• British administrators sought to understand the complexities of caste to govern the country efficiently.
• They conducted methodical and intensive surveys and reports on the ‘customs and manners’ of various tribes and castes nationwide.

Q3: Were all changes in the caste system during the colonial period deliberate and intentional?
Ans:

• Not all changes brought about during the colonial period were intended or deliberate.
• Some changes occurred as a result of the British administration's efforts to comprehend the intricacies of caste for efficient governance.

Passage - 7

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
The administration also took an interest in the welfare of downtrodden castes, referred to as the ‘depressed classes’ at that time. It was as part of these efforts that the Government of India Act of 1935 was passed which gave legal recognition to the lists or ‘schedules’ of castes and tribes marked out for special treatment by the state. This is how the terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and the ‘Scheduled Castes’ came into being. Castes at the bottom of the hierarchy that suffered severe discrimination, including all the so-called ‘untouchable’ castes, were included among the Scheduled Castes. 

Q1: What was the purpose of the Government of India Act of 1935 regarding the welfare of downtrodden castes during the colonial period?
Ans:

• The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed to provide legal recognition to the lists or ‘schedules’ of castes and tribes designated for special treatment by the state.
• This act aimed to address the welfare of downtrodden castes, known as the ‘depressed classes’ at that time.

Q2: How did the terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and ‘Scheduled Castes’ originate?
Ans:

• The terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and ‘Scheduled Castes’ came into being through the Government of India Act of 1935.
• ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and ‘Scheduled Castes’ were used to denote castes and tribes marked out for special treatment by the state, providing legal recognition to their status.

Q3: Which castes were included among the Scheduled Castes according to the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935?
Ans:

• Castes at the bottom of the hierarchy, including all the ‘untouchable’ castes, suffering severe discrimination, were included among the Scheduled Castes under the Government of India Act of 1935.

Passage - 8

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Anti-untouchability programmes became a significant part of the Congress agenda so that, by the time Independence was on the horizon, there was a broad agreement across the spectrum of the nationalist movement to abolish caste distinctions. The dominant view in the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil and as a colonial ploy to divide Indians. But the nationalist leaders, above all, Mahatma Gandhi, were able to simultaneously work for the upliftment of the lower castes, advocate the abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and, at the same time, reassure the landowning upper castes that their interests, too, would be looked after.

Q1: What role did anti-untouchability programs play in the Congress agenda during the nationalist movement?
Ans:

• Anti-untouchability programs became a significant part of the Congress agenda during the nationalist movement.
• There was a broad agreement across the spectrum of the nationalist movement to abolish caste distinctions, with the dominant view considering caste as a social evil and a colonial ploy to divide Indians.

Q2: How did the nationalist leaders, particularly Mahatma Gandhi, approach the issue of caste distinctions and untouchability?
Ans:

• Nationalist leaders, especially Mahatma Gandhi, simultaneously worked for the upliftment of lower castes, advocated the abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and reassured the landowning upper castes that their interests would also be looked after.

Q3: What was the general perspective of the nationalist movement towards caste, and how did they view it in the context of Indian society?
Ans:

• The nationalist movement viewed caste as a social evil and a colonial tactic to divide Indians.
• There was a consensus among nationalist leaders to abolish caste distinctions, fostering unity and social equality as India approached Independence.

Passage - 9

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Modern industry created all kinds of new jobs for which there were no caste rules. Urbanisation and the conditions of collective living in the cities made it difficult for the caste-segregated patterns of social interaction to survive. At a different level, modern educated Indians attracted to the liberal ideas of individualism and meritocracy, began to abandon the more extreme caste practices. On the other hand, it was remarkable how resilient caste proved to be. Recruitment to industrial jobs, whether in the textile mills of Mumbai (then Bombay), the jute mills of Kolkata (then Calcutta), or elsewhere, continued to be organised along caste and kinshipbased lines.

Q1: How did the advent of modern industry impact the traditional caste system in India?
Ans:

• Modern industry created new jobs for which there were no established caste rules, breaking traditional barriers.
• Urbanization and collective living in cities made it challenging for caste-segregated patterns of social interaction to survive.

Q2: What were the factors that led to the decline of extreme caste practices among modern educated Indians?
Ans:

• Modern educated Indians, influenced by liberal ideas of individualism and meritocracy, began to abandon extreme caste practices.

Q3: Despite the changes brought about by modern industry and urbanization, in what way did caste system show resilience, particularly in terms of employment?
Ans:

• Caste remained resilient in the context of job recruitment in modern industries.
• Recruitment for industrial jobs, such as in the textile mills of Mumbai and jute mills of Kolkata, continued to be organized along caste and kinship-based lines, indicating the persistence of caste-based social structures in employment.

Passage - 10

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‘Dominant caste’ is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large population and were granted landrights by the partial land reforms effected after Independence. The land reforms took away rights from the erstwhile claimants, the upper castes who were ‘absentee landlords’ in the sense that they played no part in the agricultural economy other than claiming their rent. They frequently did not live in the village either, but were based in towns and cities. These land rights now came to be vested in the next layer of claimants, those who were involved in the management of agriculture but were not themselves the cultivators. These intermediate castes in turn depended on the labour of the lower castes including specially the ‘untouchable’ castes for tilling and tending the land.

Q1: What does the term ‘Dominant caste’ refer to in the context of post-Independence India?
Ans:

• The term ‘Dominant caste’ refers to those castes in post-Independence India that had a large population and were granted land rights through partial land reforms.

Q2: How did the partial land reforms after Independence impact the traditional landownership structure and the upper castes?
Ans:

• The land reforms took away rights from the upper castes, who were ‘absentee landlords’ and played no active role in the agricultural economy except for collecting rent.
• These land rights were then vested in the next layer of claimants, typically those involved in the management of agriculture but not the cultivators themselves.

Q3: Who were the intermediate castes dependent on for agricultural labor according to the changes brought about by land reforms?
Ans:

• Intermediate castes, who managed agriculture after the land reforms, were dependent on the labor of lower castes, particularly the ‘untouchable’ castes, for tilling and tending the land.

Passage - 11

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For the scheduled castes and tribes and the backward castes – the opposite has happened. For them, caste has become all too visible, indeed their caste has tended to eclipse the other dimensions of their identities. Because they have no inherited educational and social capital, and because they must compete with an already entrenched upper caste group, they cannot afford to abandon their caste identity for it is one of the few collective assets they have. Moreover, they continue to suffer from discrimination of various kinds. The policies of reservation and other forms of protective discrimination instituted by the state in response to political pressure serve as their lifelines. But using this lifeline tends to make their caste the all-important and often the only aspect of their identity that the world recognises.

Q1: How has the visibility of caste identity changed for scheduled castes, tribes, and backward castes in post-Independence India?
Ans:

• For scheduled castes, tribes, and backward castes, their caste has become highly visible, often overshadowing other dimensions of their identities.

Q2: Why do scheduled castes, tribes, and backward castes find it difficult to abandon their caste identity despite the challenges they face?
Ans:

• These groups lack inherited educational and social capital and must compete with an already entrenched upper caste group.
• Their caste identity remains one of the few collective assets they possess, and abandoning it is not affordable.

Q3: How have state policies, such as reservation and protective discrimination, impacted the identity of scheduled castes, tribes, and backward castes?
Ans:

• State policies like reservation and protective discrimination serve as lifelines for these groups, providing opportunities.
• However, relying on these policies often emphasizes their caste identity, becoming the primary aspect recognized by the world, sometimes overshadowing their other identities.

Passage - 12

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In terms of size, tribes vary a great deal, ranging from about seven million to some Andamanese islanders who may number less than a hundred persons. The biggest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos and Mundas, all of whom are at least a million strong. The total population of tribes amounts to about 8.2% of the population of India, or about 84 million persons according to the 2001 Census. According to Census Report 2011, it is 8.6% of the population of India, or about 104 million tribal persons in the country.

Q1: What is the range in terms of population size among the various tribes in India?
Ans:

• Tribes in India vary greatly in size, from about seven million to some tribes like the Andamanese islanders, who may number less than a hundred persons.

Q2: Can you name some of the largest tribes in India based on population size?
Ans:

• Some of the largest tribes in India, each with a population of at least a million, include the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos, and Mundas.

Q3: What percentage of the total population of India do tribes represent according to the 2001 Census and the Census Report 2011?
Ans:

• According to the 2001 Census, tribes constitute about 8.2% of the population of India, which is approximately 84 million persons.
• According to the Census Report 2011, tribes account for 8.6% of the population of India, totaling about 104 million tribal persons in the country.

Passage - 13

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Nevertheless, the idea that tribes are like stone age hunting and gathering societies that have remained untouched by time is still common, even though this has not been true for a long time. To begin with, adivasis were not always the oppressed groups they are now – there were several Gond kingdoms in Central India such as that of Garha Mandla, or Chanda. Many of the so-called Rajput kingdoms of central and western India actually emerged through a process of stratification among adivasi communities themselves. Adivasis often exercised dominance over the plains people through their capacity to raid them, and through their services as local militias.

Q1: What is a common misconception about tribes in India, despite the reality of their historical development?
Ans:

• A common misconception is that tribes are perceived as stone age hunting and gathering societies that have remained untouched by time, although this has not been true for a long time.

Q2: How were adivasis (tribal communities) historically different from their current oppressed status?
Ans:

• Adivasis were not always oppressed groups. There were several Gond kingdoms in Central India, such as Garha Mandla and Chanda.
• Many so-called Rajput kingdoms in central and western India emerged through stratification among adivasi communities themselves.

Q3: In what ways did adivasis historically exercise dominance over the plains people?
Ans:

• Adivasis often exercised dominance over plains people through their capacity to raid them and by serving as local militias, showcasing their historical strength and influence.

Passage - 14

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Two broad sets of issues have been most important in giving rise to tribal movements. These are issues relating to control over vital economic resources like land and specially forests, and issues relating to matters of ethnic-cultural identity. The two can often go together, but with differentiation of tribal society they may also diverge. The reasons why the middle classes within tribal societies may assert their tribal identity may be different from the reasons why poor and uneducated tribals join tribal movements. As with any other community, it is the relationship between these kinds of internal dynamics and external forces that will shape the future.  

Q1: What are the two primary sets of issues that have been significant in the emergence of tribal movements?
Ans:

• The two primary sets of issues giving rise to tribal movements are control over vital economic resources like land and forests and matters of ethnic-cultural identity.

Q2: Can these issues of control over resources and ethnic-cultural identity sometimes be intertwined?
Ans:

• Yes, these issues can often be interconnected, but with the differentiation of tribal society, they may also diverge.

Q3: Why might the middle classes within tribal societies assert their tribal identity, and how does it differ from the reasons for poor and uneducated tribals joining tribal movements?
Ans:

• The middle classes within tribal societies might assert their tribal identity for different reasons than the poor and uneducated tribals who join tribal movements.
• The passage does not specify the exact reasons, but it implies that motivations can vary within the tribal community.

Passage - 15

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Since these prescriptions were not always practiced, we cannot say to what extent these rules actually determined the empirical reality of caste – its concrete meaning for the people living at that time. As you can see, most of the prescriptions involved prohibitions or restrictions of various sorts. It is also clear from the historical evidence that caste was a very unequal institution – some castes benefitted greatly from the system, while others were condemned to a life of endless labour and subordination. Most important, once caste became rigidly determined by birth, it was in principle impossible for a person to ever change their life circumstances

Q1: What is the uncertainty regarding the impact of ancient caste prescriptions on the actual social reality of that time?
Ans:

• The prescriptions outlined in ancient texts were not always practiced, making it uncertain to what extent these rules determined the empirical reality of caste or its concrete meaning for the people living at that time.

Q2: How were most of the prescriptions related to caste in ancient texts characterized?
Ans:

Most prescriptions concerning caste involved prohibitions or restrictions of various sorts, indicating the limitations placed upon individuals based on their caste.

Q3: What was the fundamental nature of the caste system as highlighted by historical evidence?
Ans:

• The historical evidence reveals that the caste system was highly unequal. While some castes benefited greatly, others were condemned to a life of endless labor and subordination.
• Once caste became rigidly determined by birth, it was in principle impossible for a person to change their life circumstances, reinforcing social hierarchy and limited mobility.

Passage - 16

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between ‘purity’ and ‘pollution’. This is a division between something believed to be closer to the sacred (thus connoting ritual purity), and something believed to be distant from or opposed to the sacred, therefore considered ritually polluting. Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure or impure have low status. As in all societies, material power (i.e., economic or military power) is closely associated with social status, so that those in power tend to be of high status, and vice versa.

Q1: What is the basis for the hierarchical ordering of castes in the caste system?
Ans:

• The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between ‘purity’ and ‘pollution’.
• Ritual purity is associated with something believed to be closer to the sacred, leading to high status, while ritual pollution is associated with something distant from the sacred, resulting in low status.

Q2: How is material power, such as economic or military power, related to social status in the caste system?
Ans:

• Material power (economic or military power) is closely associated with social status in the caste system.
• Those in power tend to be of high status, and conversely, those of high status often hold material power in society.

Q3: What determines the high or low status of castes in the caste system according to the passage?
Ans:

• Castes that are considered ritually pure are accorded high status, while those considered less pure or impure are relegated to low status in the hierarchical caste system.

Passage - 17

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
The 1901 Census under the direction of Herbert Risley was particularly important as it sought to collect information on the social hierarchy of caste – i.e., the social order of precedence in particular regions, as to the position of each caste in the rank order. This effort had a huge impact on social perceptions of caste and hundreds of petitions were addressed to the Census Commissioner by representatives of different castes claiming a higher position in the social scale and offering historical and scriptural evidence for their claims. Overall, scholars feel that this kind of direct attempt to count caste and to officially record caste status changed the institution itself. 

Q1: What made the 1901 Census in India significant in terms of understanding caste?
Ans:

• The 1901 Census, directed by Herbert Risley, was crucial as it aimed to collect information on the social hierarchy of caste.
• It sought to determine the social order of precedence in specific regions, detailing the position of each caste in the rank order.

Q2: How did the 1901 Census impact social perceptions of caste in India?
Ans:

• The Census led to an impact on social perceptions of caste. Representatives of different castes sent petitions to the Census Commissioner, claiming a higher position in the social scale and providing historical and scriptural evidence to support their claims.

Q3: What is the general consensus among scholars regarding the impact of the 1901 Census on the institution of caste?
Ans:

• Scholars generally believe that the direct attempt to count caste and officially record caste status through the 1901 Census had a significant effect on the institution of caste itself, leading to changes in how caste was perceived and structured.

Passage - 18

Direction: Read the following Passage and Answer the Questions.
Caste considerations had inevitably played a role in the mass mobilisations of the nationalist movement. Efforts to organise the “depressed classes” and particularly the untouchable castes predated the nationalist movement, having begun in the second half of the nineteenth century. This was an initiative taken from both ends of the caste spectrum – by upper caste progressive reformers as well as by members of the lower castes such as Mahatma Jotiba Phule and Babasaheb Ambedkar in western India, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass and Periyar (E.V. Ramaswamy Naickar) in the South.

Q1: How did caste considerations influence the mass mobilizations during the nationalist movement in India?
Ans:

• Caste considerations inevitably played a role in the mass mobilizations of the nationalist movement in India.

Q2: When did efforts to organize the “depressed classes” and untouchable castes begin, and who were the key figures involved in this initiative?
Ans:

• Efforts to organize the “depressed classes” and untouchable castes started in the second half of the nineteenth century.
• This initiative was taken by both upper caste progressive reformers and members of the lower castes, including figures like Mahatma Jotiba Phule and Babasaheb Ambedkar in western India, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass, and Periyar (E.V. Ramaswamy Naickar) in the South.