Religion without God | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Non-Theism and Its Relationship with Religion

Non-theism, a philosophical doctrine, negates the concept of a personal God, rejecting the existence of a divine reality that is omnipotent, omniscient, and the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the world. Non-theism, in essence, signifies a lack of belief in God, but it does not assert the positive non-existence of God. When referring to a person as a non-theist, it signifies a lack of belief in God without necessarily implying criticism or contempt.

Non-Theism vs. Rejection of Religion
Non-theism primarily challenges the concept of a personal God, but it doesn't inherently reject the existence of other supernatural or spiritual realities. While non-theists may dismiss the existence of God, they can still accept the presence of other supernatural forces. For instance, belief systems like Jainism, Buddhism, and Samkhya reject the notion of God but acknowledge the existence of other supernatural entities or concepts, such as nirvana, kaivalya, tirthankar, the law of karma, prakriti, purusa, and more.

The Nature of Religion and Supernatural Entities

The necessary requirement for a belief system to be considered a religion pertains to the acknowledgment of supernatural entities. It does not mandate belief in a personal God. These supernatural beings can be objects of worship and may serve as the basis for various religions. However, these supernatural entities should not be equated with God, as they lack the personal qualities associated with traditional concepts of God.

Divergent Views on Religion and God

Opinions regarding the relationship between religion and God vary:

• Majority View: Most thinkers, both in the Western and Indian contexts, contend that religion and God are inherently interlinked. They maintain that religion cannot exist without God, emphasizing that religion is fundamentally a theistic principle. They argue that Jainism, for example, has deified tirthankaras and especially Mahavira as God, while Buddhism has elevated Buddha to a divine status. Therefore, these traditions are considered theistic religions, akin to Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Alternative View: Contrarily, some assert that Jainism and Buddhism are non-theistic religions. In this perspective, tirthankaras, Mahavira, and Buddha are not considered gods in line with the personalistic concept of God. Instead, they are perceived as supernatural beings and objects of worship. This interpretation of these belief systems deems them non-theistic religions, as they do not portray these figures as the creators, sustainers, and destroyers of the world. Such entities do not possess the attributes of God.

Non-Theistic Nature of Buddhism
Buddhism is often considered a non-theistic religion. Several factors support this view:

1. Buddha's primary focus was on alleviating the suffering of the world through the attainment of Nirvana. The concept of God did not play a central role in achieving Nirvana.
2. Buddhist philosophical doctrines, such as pratityasamutpada (theory of dependent causation), do not incorporate God. These doctrines operate based on causal principles, and no divine guidance is necessary.
3. Buddhist thinkers, including Ashvaghosh, have argued against the existence of God. They have challenged notions like the identity of cause and effect (God and the world), the purpose of creation, and the moral argument for God's existence.
4. The presence of atheists and polytheists raises questions about the nature of God's omnipotence and unity in the Buddhist context.
5. Ashvaghosh argued against the moral argument for God's existence, highlighting that the law of karma functions autonomously based on pratityasamutpada, rendering the existence of God redundant.

These elements collectively contribute to the perception of Buddhism as a non-theistic religion, distinct from theistic belief systems.

Could Atheism Be Considered a Religion?

Atheism, commonly defined as the belief that there is no God, has been a subject of debate regarding whether it can be considered a religion. It is important to consider different aspects and dimensions of religion to address this question.

Atheism and Defining Religion

• The definition of religion is challenging, with various proposed definitions emphasizing a belief in the supernatural. However, these definitions face limitations as they do not encompass religions that worship non-supernatural elements (e.g., Jainism, Mayan sun worship) or those focusing on ethical and moral guidance (e.g., Confucianism and Taoism). These definitions also do not clearly address supernatural issues.
• A more comprehensive approach to defining religion is to examine common characteristics shared by religions. The framework known as the Seven Dimensions of Religion, established by Ninian Smart, provides a broad coverage of various aspects of religion, irrespective of specific religious beliefs.

Seven Dimensions of Religion

1. Narrative: Religions often have narratives explaining the origins of the universe and humanity's role in it. Western Atheism has its own narrative, such as the evolutionary narrative.
2. Experiential: The experiential dimension includes both the experiences leading to the foundation of a religion and those of its adherents. Some Atheists report feelings of liberation after converting.
3. Social: Religion incorporates social hierarchies and power structures. Atheists may hope for conversions to atheism based on logical reasoning.
4. Doctrinal: Doctrines represent beliefs and philosophies arising from a religion. Contemporary Atheism has developed doctrines, particularly in the form of secular humanism.
5. Ethics: Many atheists adhere to moral systems. Some may embrace ethical systems based on principles like utilitarianism.
6. Ritual: Rituals are less prominent in Atheism, as they are often associated with the divine. However, some secular rituals, like celebrating Darwin's birthday, have developed.
7. Material: This dimension includes physical elements created by a religion, sacred art and buildings, and natural features treated as sacred. Nature is considered sacred by some atheists.

Atheism and Its Resemblance to Religion

• Contemporary Western Atheism exhibits six of the seven dimensions of religion. The only dimension that appears less pronounced is ritual. Nevertheless, atheists have begun to develop their rituals, often linked to commemorating historical figures or ideas. This development implies that even ritualistic aspects are emerging in Atheism.
• It is essential to note that many atheists reject the classification of atheism as a religion, asserting that their lack of belief in any deity or divinity precludes them from being categorized within the framework of religion. For them, attempts to define atheism as a religion may seem futile.
• Daniel Smartt's effort to classify atheism as a religion has also been criticized, with some arguing that it conflates atheism with naturalism. Some may argue that while atheism exhibits features akin to a cult, labeling it as a religion could be considered an attempt to portray it in a religious light.

The question of whether atheism is a religion remains a matter of ongoing debate, with varying perspectives within the atheist community itself.

Richard Dworkin's "Religion Without God"

In "Religion Without God," the late Ronald Dworkin, a renowned liberal philosopher, presents his reflections on a concept that challenges conventional religious boundaries. Dworkin's work invites contemplation about religion without the conventional notion of a deity. His exploration parallels the ideas of Spinoza, who contemplated "God without religion." Dworkin's perspective emphasizes that religions often manifest as institutional constructs, but the notion of God can transcend these institutions. However, Dworkin's understanding of "God" does not imply a metaphysical commitment to a supernatural person. Instead, he seeks a profound and spiritual engagement with core religious values, including the moral life, as well as an appreciation for the awe-inspiring aspects of existence. Dworkin's approach aligns with Dewey's concept of the "religious attitude" rather than traditional religiosity.

Religion Beyond God

• Dworkin's book is divided into two parts. In the first part, he argues that true religion does not necessitate a belief in God. Instead, it hinges on faith in objective meaning and a sense of wonder regarding the universe's sublime qualities. According to Dworkin, many atheists espouse belief in objective meaning and experience wonder in the face of the universe, which, in his view, makes them "religious" in their own right. Dworkin hopes that this perspective can mitigate the conflicts between atheists and believers in contemporary Western culture.
• He contends that both sides share core beliefs, and disagreements regarding God's existence are relatively minor. Dworkin cites the example of objective moral values to illustrate his point. While some theists argue that moral values rely on the existence of a personal God, Dworkin asserts that objective values must exist independently of God's will. This is because if God's commands determined morality, it would be arbitrary. Dworkin asks believers to consider a scenario in which God commands a heinous act. In such a case, would the act be morally right? According to Dworkin, the act would still be morally wrong, irrespective of God's command. Therefore, God is not fundamental to moral reasoning and serves as a potential guide, rather than a moral foundation.
• Dworkin's perspective blurs the stark division between religious and non-religious individuals. He acknowledges that many atheists possess profound convictions and experiences akin to those deemed religious by believers. These atheists may believe in a universal "force" greater than themselves and hold a strong ethical responsibility to live virtuously and respect others' lives.
• Dworkin's key proposal is that God's existence can only justify particular value convictions if an independent background principle explains why. While there might be such principles, believers can construct alternative principles. However, these principles, regardless of their nature, should be grounded in independent moral or value claims. Dworkin contends that the distinctions between religious and non-religious perspectives are less significant than the shared faith in value that unites both groups. Ultimately, he emphasizes that the faith in value serves as a common ground that transcends the divide between godly and godless religion.