New Ideas and Religions Chapter Notes | Footprints Class 6: Book Solutions, Notes & Worksheets PDF Download

The Upanishads

• Upanishads, derived from Sanskrit, literally means "sitting at the feet of the guru or teacher." They form a segment of Later Vedic literature (600 BCE) and mark a shift from the focus on gods and rituals to abstract concepts and mystical knowledge. They emerged as thinkers who sought answers to profound questions about life, death, the universe, and the existence of an Eternal Being.
• Authored by Vedic seers and saints like Yajnavalkya, Aruni, Shandilya, and Aitareya, predominantly male, Upanishads occasionally mention notable women such as Gargi and Maitreyi, who engaged in debates in royal courts. However, participation in such discussions was rare for the impoverished. An exception is Satyakama Jabala, the son of a poor woman, who ardently desired knowledge and approached the sage Gautama.
• Upanishads remain relevant today, translated into various languages including Persian, English, and French. Their concepts were further elaborated upon by Adi Shankaracharya, a renowned Hindu thinker and teacher.

Rise of New Religions: Causes

During the Later Vedic Period, Brahmanas dominated religious life with intricate rituals and sacrifices, alienating the common populace. Reasons for the decline of Vedic religion include:

1. The rigid caste system led to social inequalities and conflicts. Brahmanas claimed the highest status, causing resentment among Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, who sought equality.
2. Most religious texts were in Sanskrit, inaccessible to those speaking Pali and Prakrit.
3. Urbanization and the rise of cities like Kaushambi and Vaishali introduced money-based economies, fostering materialism. Many sought a religion advocating simplicity amidst ostentatious lifestyles.

Jainism and Vardhamana Mahavira

Jainism was founded by a great teacher named Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in 599 BCE in a place called Kundagrama near Vaishali in Bihar. Mahavira came from a noble family, but he felt deeply troubled by the suffering he saw around him. At the age of 30, he left his home in search of truth and enlightenment. For the next 12 years, he meditated and lived a very strict and simple life. Finally, he attained a state of perfect knowledge, which is called 'kaivalya' or enlightenment. Because he conquered all feelings of sorrow and happiness, he came to be known as 'Jina', which means 'the Conqueror'. His followers were called 'Jainas'. Mahavira taught important principles like non-violence, truthfulness, not stealing, celibacy, and not owning property.

Teachings of Mahavira

• Mahavira opposed Vedic rituals and animal sacrifice, advocating non-violence towards all beings.
• He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possessed a soul.
• He opposed the varna system, asserting that all human beings were equal. He stressed that freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (moksha) could be achieved by following the Three Jewels or triratnas of Jainism: right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct or action.
• He advocated a simple life and extreme penance to achieve the highest spiritual state.

Teachings Summarized

1. Ahimsa: Non-violence towards all beings.
2. Satya: Speaking the truth.
3. Asteya: The practice of not stealing.
4. Tyaga: Not owning property and leading a detached life.
5. Brahmacharya: Leading a life of celibacy.

Spread of Jainism

Jainism spread to many places like Magadha, Videha, and others. There were two main groups of Jainas - the Svetambaras (who dressed in white) and the Digambaras (who did not wear clothes). Jainism also spread to some parts of South India and Nepal. Jainism had a big impact on art, literature, and architecture, thanks to the support of kings who followed this religion. Some famous Jain temples include Dilwara temple in Mount Abu, temples in Chittor, Khajuraho, and Ranakpur.

Jaina Literature

The teachings of Mahavira were first passed down orally and later written down as the 12 Angas. These are very important sacred texts for Jainas.

Buddhism and Gautama Buddha

Buddhism was founded by a prince named Siddhartha Gautama. He was born in Nepal in 566 BCE. At a young age, Siddhartha was not much interested in worldly matters and spent a lot of time meditating. One day, he saw four things that deeply affected him - a sick person, an old person, a dead person, and an ascetic. This made him want to find answers to the problems of suffering. After many years of searching, he attained enlightenment under a tree in Bodhgaya. After this, he was known as 'Buddha', which means 'the Enlightened One'. He taught important things like the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path.

The Four Sights

After meditating in Gaya for six years, Siddhartha Gautama finally found answers to his questions and attained enlightenment under the pipal tree at modern Bodhgaya. Later, the Mahabodhi Temple was built at this place.

After this spiritual realization, Siddhartha came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, called the Dharma Chakra Pravartana or "Turning of the Wheel of Law."

The Buddha's main teachings are contained in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

Teachings of the Buddha

The Buddha taught that there is suffering in the world and that the cause of suffering is desire or thirst. He also said that it is possible to put an end to suffering by following the Eight-fold Path, which includes things like right attitude, right speech, right action, and others. The Buddha also emphasized kindness, non-violence, and equality among all people.

Buddhist Sacred Literature

Buddhist literature includes important texts like the Tripitaka, which is divided into the Sutta Pitaka (teachings of the Buddha), Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monks and nuns), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical principles). There are other books like Milinda Panha and the Jatakas which are also very important.

Organisation and Residence

Both Jainism and Buddhism encouraged people to leave their homes to focus on attaining true knowledge. They formed groups called 'sangha' where people lived and meditated together. There were separate branches for men and women. They followed a simple lifestyle and relied on begging for food. Monks were called 'bhikkus' and nuns were called 'bhikkunis'. They also had rules written down in a book called Vinaya Pitaka. Monasteries, known as 'viharas', were built for them to live in.

Monasteries or Viharas

Initially, both Buddhist and Jaina monks/nuns were itinerant, meaning they wandered from place to place, teaching and begging for food. However, movement during the monsoon season was difficult due to bad weather.

• To address this, the sangha evolved the practice of vassa, or retreat during the rainy season, where monks and nuns remained in a fixed location for a three-month period.
• These yearly retreats were held in temporary shelters, pavilions, parks donated to the sangha, or natural caves in hilly areas.
• Over time, there was a need for more permanent shelters, leading to the construction of monasteries or viharas on donated land or in caves by rich merchants, kings, and landowners.
• Eventually, monks and nuns began to reside in these viharas throughout the year.

Buddhist nuns composed beautiful poems recounting their experiences, which were compiled into a book called the Therigatha, or the "songs of the Nuns."