Print Culture and the Modern World - Class 10 Chapter Notes PDF Download

Print Culture and the modern world

• Introduction to Print Culture
  • Printed matter is ubiquitous in our lives, encompassing books, journals, newspapers, and various everyday items like theatre programs and advertisements.
  • We often overlook the fact that there was a time before the advent of print and fail to recognize print's historical significance in shaping our modern world.
• History of Printed Literature
  • Printed literature has a rich history, with its origins in East Asia before spreading to Europe and India.
  • Understanding the impact of technological advancements on print dissemination is crucial in grasping how societies and cultures transformed with the rise of print.
• Transition from Manuscript to Print
  • In the sixteenth century, book production relied on manual processes such as dictation, writing, and illustration, as depicted in the royal workshop image from Akhlaq-i-Nasiri, 1595.
  • Handwritten artistry held significant importance prior to the era of print, prompting contemplation on how traditional art forms evolved with the introduction of printing machines.

The First Printed Books

• The earliest form of print technology originated in China, Japan, and Korea, initially involving hand printing methods.
• Starting from AD 594, Chinese books were produced through a technique where paper was rubbed against inked woodblocks.
• Due to the limitations of this method, the traditional Chinese 'accordion book' was created by folding and stitching the paper.
• Skilled craftsmen in China were able to replicate calligraphy with exceptional precision.
• In ancient China, the imperial state played a pivotal role in printing, particularly for educational materials used in civil service examinations.
• From the 16th century onwards, the increase in examination candidates led to a surge in printing activities.
• During the 17th century, as urban culture flourished in China, print materials found diverse applications beyond scholarly circles.
• Print became more widespread among merchants for trade information and as a form of leisure reading for the general population.
• The evolving reading culture in China favored genres like fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, and romantic plays.
• Notably, women, including wealthy individuals and scholar-officials' wives, actively participated in reading and publishing literary works.
• This cultural shift towards reading was accompanied by the adoption of Western printing techniques and mechanical presses in the late 19th century.
• Shanghai emerged as a key center for the new print culture, catering to Western-style schools and facilitating the transition from hand printing to mechanical printing.

Print in Japan

• Calligraphy: The art of elegant and stylized writing.
• Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology to Japan around AD 768-770.
• The oldest known Japanese book, printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, which includes text and woodcut illustrations.
• Illustrations were also printed on textiles, showcasing the early developments in printing technology.
• Medieval Publishing in Japan:
  • In medieval Japan, there was a vibrant culture of publishing where poets and prose writers were frequently published.
  • Books during this time were not only plentiful but also affordable.
• Printing Innovations:
  • In the late eighteenth century in Edo (Tokyo), the urban culture thrived, leading to the creation of illustrated collections depicting various aspects of life.
  • These collections showcased an elegant urban lifestyle, including artists, courtesans, and teahouse gatherings.
• Diverse Content:
  • Libraries and bookstores were filled with hand-printed materials covering a wide range of subjects such as women, musical instruments, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, etiquette, cooking, and famous places.
• Kitagawa Utamaro and Ukiyo Art:
  • Kitagawa Utamaro, born in Edo in 1753, was renowned for his contributions to ukiyo-e, which depicted ordinary human experiences in urban settings.
  • His prints from the 'floating world' era influenced Western artists like Manet, Monet, and Van Gogh.
• Production Process:
  • Publishers like Tsutaya Juzaburo played a crucial role in identifying subjects and commissioning artists for prints.
  • The process involved a skilled woodblock carver who transferred the drawing onto a woodblock to create printing blocks for reproduction.
• Visual Examples:
  • Fig. 3: An ukiyo print by Kitagawa Utamaro.
  • Fig. 4: A morning scene ukiyo print by Shunman Kubo, depicting a man observing snowfall while women engage in domestic activities like tea preparation.

Print Comes to Europe

• Centuries ago, valuable goods like silk and spices traveled from China to Europe through the silk route.
• In the eleventh century, Chinese paper made its way to Europe, enabling the creation of manuscripts by scribes.
• Marco Polo, a renowned explorer, returned to Italy in 1295 after his adventures in China, where woodblock printing was already in use.
• Italian adoption of woodblock printing led to the production of books, spreading this technology across Europe.
• Luxury editions remained handwritten on expensive materials like vellum for aristocrats and affluent monastic libraries.
• Printed books were initially considered inferior by some, but they became popular among merchants and students due to their affordability.
• The demand for books surged, leading to expanded book production, export, and the organization of book fairs.
• New methods of manuscript production emerged to meet the growing demand, with booksellers employing scribes in addition to wealthy patrons.
• Despite efforts, handwritten manuscripts couldn't keep up with the demand due to cost, labor, and fragility.
• Woodblock printing gained popularity by the fifteenth century for its efficiency in producing various materials like textiles and religious images.
• Johann Gutenberg's printing press invention in Strasbourg in the 1430s revolutionized text reproduction.

New Words: 

• Vellum: A type of parchment made from animal skin.

Paraphrase the provided information, offering detailed explanations and examples as needed:

Evolution of Printing in Europe

• Chinese paper introduction led to manuscript production in Europe.
• Marco Polo's return popularized woodblock printing in Italy and beyond.
• Initially, printed books were shunned by elitist circles but embraced by commoners.

Book Production Expansion

• Increased book demand spurred book exportation across Europe.
• Book fairs emerged as hubs for book transactions and promotion.
• New manuscript production methods catered to the rising book needs.

Rise of Printing Press

• Gutenberg's printing press invention revolutionized text reproduction.
• Woodblock printing gained popularity for its efficiency and versatility.
• Overview of Gutenberg and the Printing Press
  • Johannes Gutenberg, a son of a merchant, utilized his diverse skills to innovate the printing press. Drawing inspiration from his experience with presses and metalwork, he transformed existing technology to create his groundbreaking invention.
  • The first book printed by Gutenberg was the Bible, marking a significant milestone in the history of printing. Despite the initial slow production rate, the printing process gradually became more efficient.
• Transition from Handwritten to Printed Books
  • Initially, printed books closely resembled handwritten manuscripts, incorporating decorative elements like ornamental styles and hand-painted illustrations.
  • Wealthy patrons had the freedom to personalize their books by choosing designs and selecting painting schools for illustrations. The printed page often left space for manual embellishments.
• Spread of Printing Presses in Europe
  • Over a span of a century, printing presses proliferated across Europe, with German printers playing a pivotal role in establishing printing facilities in various countries.
  • The increased availability of printed books led to a surge in book production, with millions of copies flooding the European markets during the 15th and 16th centuries.
• Impact of the Print Revolution
  • The transition from manual to mechanical printing techniques sparked a print revolution, significantly enhancing the speed and efficiency of book production.
  • Gutenberg's moveable type printing machine revolutionized the industry, enabling the rapid composition of text and accelerating the printing process.
• New Terminology: Platen
  • In letterpress printing, a platen is a board used to apply pressure to paper, transferring the impression from the type. Originally made of wood, it later evolved to steel for enhanced durability.
• Key Features of the Gutenberg Printing Press
  • The Gutenberg press featured metal types for each Roman alphabet character, facilitating the creation of movable type for text composition.
  • This innovative printing machine could produce books at a significantly faster pace compared to traditional manual methods, revolutionizing the printing industry.

Introduction to Gutenberg's Bible

• Gutenberg's Bible was the first printed book in Europe, with around 180 copies produced, but only about 50 have survived.
• Each copy was unique due to hand-designed borders, paintings, and illuminations, making no two copies exactly alike.
• Elites valued this lack of uniformity as it made each copy seem exclusive and one-of-a-kind.
• The use of color within the text served to add vibrancy to the page and emphasize the significance of holy words.

Color Usage in Gutenberg's Bible

• Colors were added by hand to each page of the text, enhancing its visual appeal and highlighting important words.
• Gutenberg printed the text in black, leaving spaces for color to be added later.

A Glimpse into a Printer's Workshop

• The sixteenth-century printer's shop housed various activities under one roof.
• Compositors composed the text, galleys held the metal types, and printers operated the press.
• Proofreaders ensured accuracy, and the final product was stacks of printed sheets waiting to be bound.

New Terminology

• Compositor: The individual responsible for composing text for printing purposes.
• Galley: A metal frame where types are arranged and text is composed.

The Print Revolution and Its Impact

• The print revolution was not just a mere advancement in book production; it fundamentally altered people's lives, changing their access to information, knowledge, and relationships with institutions and authorities.
• It influenced popular perceptions and introduced new ways of viewing the world.
• A New Reading Public
  • The printing press gave rise to a new reading public by reducing the cost of books and increasing their accessibility.
  • Books became more affordable to produce, leading to a proliferation of copies in the market and expanding readership.
  • Previously, reading was a privilege of the elites, while common people relied on oral traditions for knowledge transmission.
  • To attract a wider audience, publishers began producing popular ballads and folk tales, often accompanied by illustrations, blurring the line between oral and reading cultures.
• New Words
  • Ballad: A historical narrative or folk tale typically sung or recited in verse.
  • Taverns: Gathering places where individuals socialize, consume alcohol, have meals, and exchange news.

Religious Debates and the Fear of Print

• Introduction to the Impact of Print

  Printing facilitated widespread circulation of ideas, sparking debates and discussions.

  Individuals could now print and distribute their dissenting views, influencing others.

  Concerns arose regarding the uncontrolled dissemination of printed material and its impact on society.

• Apprehensions Surrounding Printed Books

  Many expressed fears about the accessibility of printed content and its influence on people's thoughts.

  Authorities worried that unregulated printing could lead to the spread of rebellious or irreligious ideas.

  This anxiety led to widespread criticism of the new printed literature.

• Religious Implications in Early Modern Europe

  In 1517, Martin Luther critiqued Roman Catholic Church practices through his Ninety-Five Theses.

  Luther's writings, widely reproduced due to the printing press, sparked the Protestant Reformation.

  Print played a crucial role in disseminating Luther's ideas and shaping intellectual discourse.

• Impact of Print on the Reformation

  Luther's translation of the New Testament sold thousands of copies rapidly.

  Printing technology fostered a new intellectual environment that supported the Reformation.

  Print enabled the spread of new ideas, contributing to the Protestant Reformation.

• New Words

  Protestant Reformation: A 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church, led by figures like Martin Luther.

  Traditions of Anti-Catholic Christianity: Developed from the Protestant Reformation.

The Reading Mania

• During the 17th and 18th centuries, literacy rates increased across most of Europe due to the establishment of schools by various denominational churches in villages, which facilitated literacy among peasants and artisans.
• By the late 18th century, some parts of Europe boasted literacy rates ranging from 60 to 80 percent, leading to a surge in reading interest.
• A reading frenzy emerged as literacy and educational institutions spread, prompting a high demand for books, subsequently leading to a significant rise in book production.
• New genres of popular literature emerged to cater to diverse audiences. Booksellers employed pedlars who traveled to villages selling various reading materials, including almanacs, ballads, folktales, penny chapbooks, romances, and histories.
• The periodical press evolved from the early 18th century, combining news on current affairs and entertainment, disseminating information about wars, trade, and global developments.
• Scientific and philosophical ideas became more accessible to the general population, with the publication of ancient and medieval scientific texts, maps, and diagrams. Notable scientists and philosophers like Isaac Newton, Thomas Paine, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau influenced a broader readership with their writings.

New Words

• Denominations: Refers to subgroups within a religion.
• Almanac: An annual publication containing astronomical data, sun and moon movements, tide timings, eclipses, and other relevant information for everyday life.
• Chapbook: Pocket-sized books sold by traveling pedlars known as chapmen, popularized during the sixteenth-century print revolution.

James Lackington's Observation

• James Lackington, a London publisher in 1791, noted a significant increase in book sales over the past two decades.
• He observed a shift in reading habits among rural communities, where people previously engaged in oral storytelling now spent their evenings reading tales and romances.
• Lackington highlighted how even individuals from humble backgrounds were investing in books for entertainment, as evidenced by specific book requests made by farmers and country folk.

Impact on Society

• The increased availability of books and literacy rates contributed to a cultural shift where reading became a popular pastime and source of entertainment for a broader audience.
• Accessible scientific and philosophical literature helped disseminate knowledge and shape public discourse, fostering a more informed and intellectually engaged society.

4.1 'Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!'

• In the mid-eighteenth century, there was a widespread belief that books were instrumental in spreading progress and enlightenment.
• Many individuals held the conviction that books had the power to transform society, free it from authoritarianism, and usher in an era guided by reason and intellect.
• Louise-Sebastien Mercier, an 18th-century French novelist, emphasized the profound impact of the printing press and the role of public opinion in dismantling despotism.
• Mercier's novels often depicted protagonists who underwent significant changes through reading, becoming enlightened and empowered by the ideas they encountered.
• He proclaimed the potency of print in advancing enlightenment and undermining oppressive regimes, famously declaring, "Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world! Tremble before the virtual writer!"

4.2 Print Culture and the French Revolution

• Historians have suggested that print culture played a crucial role in setting the stage for the French Revolution.
• Three main arguments have been presented:
• 
  
  • Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers, challenging traditional beliefs and advocating for reason over custom and superstition.
  • It fostered a culture of debate and critical thinking, leading to the emergence of new social and political ideologies.
  • By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature that satirized the monarchy and critiqued its moral authority, contributing to a growing sense of dissent.

New Words

• Despotism: A form of governance characterized by absolute power wielded by an individual without legal or constitutional constraints.
• Print media in France before the revolution played a crucial role in questioning the existing social order, often portraying the monarchy as self-indulgent while the common people endured hardships.
• Underground literature, including cartoons and caricatures, fostered hostile sentiments against the monarchy, reflecting the common people's suffering and dissatisfaction.
• While print facilitated the dissemination of ideas, individuals were exposed to diverse perspectives, including those of philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau alongside monarchical and Church propaganda.
• People selectively absorbed and interpreted various ideas, shaping their own beliefs rather than being directly molded by printed material.

The Impact of Cartoons

The late eighteenth-century cartoon depicted the stark contrast between the nobility and the common people, highlighting the struggles of peasants, artisans, and workers in contrast to the privileged nobility.

• Cartoons like these influenced pre-revolutionary thinking by shedding light on societal inequalities and injustices.

Role of Print Culture in the French Revolution

• Some historians argue that print culture laid the foundation for the French Revolution by:
• Facilitating the dissemination of critical ideas and dissenting opinions.
• Challenging the prevailing social hierarchy and exposing injustices within the system.

In conclusion, print media, including cartoons and literature, played a significant role in shaping public opinion and fostering discontent with the established social order in pre-revolutionary France.

The Nineteenth Century

The 19th century marked significant progress in mass literacy in Europe, leading to a surge in new readers among children, women, and workers.

Children, Women, and Workers

• With the enforcement of compulsory primary education in the late 19th century, children emerged as a crucial reader demographic.
• The production of school textbooks became pivotal for the publishing sector.
• In 1857, a children's press dedicated solely to literature for children was established in France.
• The Grimm Brothers in Germany meticulously compiled traditional folk tales from peasants, refining them for publication by omitting unsuitable content.

Penny Magazine

• The Penny Magazine, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in England between 1832 and 1835, targeted the working class.
• Penny magazines and manuals on etiquette and housekeeping were specifically tailored for women readers.

Role of Women

• Women gained prominence as both readers and writers during the 19th century.
• Numerous renowned novelists were women, such as Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, and George Eliot, who reshaped societal perceptions of women.

Lending Libraries and Self-Education

• In the 19th century, lending libraries in England served as educational tools for white-collar workers, artisans, and the lower-middle class.
• As the working day shortened, workers devoted time to self-improvement, producing political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

Personal Struggles for Education

• Individuals like Thomas Wood, a Yorkshire mechanic, overcame obstacles by reading rented newspapers by firelight due to financial constraints.
• Autobiographies of impoverished individuals, such as Maxim Gorky's works, shed light on their relentless pursuit of education against challenging circumstances.

Evolution of Strategies in Printing and Publishing

India and the World of Print

• Printing in India began with a rich tradition of handwritten manuscripts in languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and vernacular languages.
• Manuscripts were commonly copied on palm leaves or handmade paper, often featuring intricate illustrations.
• To preserve manuscripts, they were either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together.
• Despite the introduction of print, manuscripts continued to be created until the late nineteenth century.
• However, manuscripts were expensive and delicate, requiring careful handling and posing challenges for easy readability.

Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

• The tradition of handwritten manuscripts in India was diverse, encompassing various languages and styles.
• Pages were crafted on palm leaves or handmade paper, sometimes adorned with beautiful illustrations.
• To ensure longevity, manuscripts were protected by being bound between wooden covers or stitched together.
• Even after the advent of printing technology, manuscripts persisted until the late 1800s.
• Despite their cultural significance, manuscripts were both costly and fragile, necessitating careful treatment.
• Hafiz, a renowned fourteenth-century poet, had his works compiled in manuscripts known as Diwan, exemplifying exquisite calligraphy and design.
• Even post the introduction of the printing press, such elaborate manuscripts continued to be crafted for the affluent.
• Manuscripts in Pre-colonial Bengal
  • Manuscripts were not commonly used due to diverse scripting styles.
  • Village primary schools existed, but students mainly focused on writing, not reading.
  • Teachers orally dictated texts, leading to literacy through writing rather than reading.
• Handwritten Manuscripts in India
  • Handwritten manuscripts persisted even after the introduction of printing.
  • An example is an eighteenth-century manuscript in Malayalam script.
• Introduction of Printing Press in India
  • Portuguese missionaries brought the printing press to Goa in the 16th century.
  • Jesuit priests printed tracts in Konkani and Kanara languages.
  • Tamil and Malayalam books were printed by Catholic priests in the late 16th and early 18th centuries.
  • Dutch Protestant missionaries translated and printed Tamil texts by 1710.
• Emergence of English Printing in India
  • English language press was slow to develop despite the presence of the East India Company.
  • James Augustus Hickey initiated English printing with the Bengal Gazette in 1780.
  • Hickey's magazine included advertisements and critiques of colonial officials.
  • Governor-General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey for publishing critical content.
• Growth of Newspapers in India
  • By the late 18th century, various newspapers and journals were in circulation.
  • Indian individuals also started publishing newspapers, like the Bengal Gazette by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.
  • Competition and diversity in print media began to shape public discourse in India.

Religious Reform and Public Debates

• From the early 19th century, there were intense debates regarding religious matters, with different groups responding to societal changes in various ways.
• Various interpretations of religious beliefs emerged, with some groups criticizing existing practices and advocating for reforms, while others opposed these reformist ideas.
• Debates took place in public spaces and through printed materials like tracts and newspapers, which not only disseminated new ideas but also influenced the nature of the discussions.
• The wider public could now engage in these debates and express their opinions, leading to the emergence of new ideas through clashes of perspectives.

• Controversies in Bengal

  • In Bengal, intense controversies arose between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy on issues such as widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry.
  • Tracts and newspapers flourished in Bengal, presenting diverse arguments to a broader audience by using the everyday language of common people.
  • Publications like the Sambad Kaumudi by Rammohun Roy and the Samachar Chandrika commissioned by the Hindu orthodoxy contributed to the ongoing debate.

• Printing Press Influence in North India

  • In North India, the ulama, or Islamic legal scholars, expressed concerns about the decline of Muslim dynasties under colonial rule.
  • To address their worries about potential religious and legal changes, the ulama utilized lithographic presses to publish religious texts and newspapers in Persian and Urdu.
  • Institutions like the Deoband Seminary, established in 1867, issued numerous fatwas to guide Muslims in their daily lives and clarify Islamic doctrines.

• Diverse Interpretations Within Muslim Communities

  • Throughout the 19th century, various Muslim sects and seminaries emerged with distinct interpretations of faith, each seeking to expand their followers and counter the influence of rivals.
  • Urdu print media played a crucial role in facilitating public debates and discussions among different Muslim groups.

• Promotion of Reading Religious Texts Among Hindus

  • Print culture encouraged the reading of religious texts among Hindus, particularly in vernacular languages.
  • The availability of printed materials helped in the dissemination of religious knowledge and fostered discussions within the Hindu community.

During the 19th century in India, the dissemination of religious texts and newspapers played a crucial role in shaping society and connecting people across different regions.

Religious Texts in Print

• Religious texts such as the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas became widely available after being printed in the sixteenth century and distributed from Calcutta in 1810.
• Cheap lithographic editions of religious texts flooded the markets in North India by the mid-nineteenth century, making them accessible to a broader audience.
• The Naval Kishore Press in Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay significantly contributed to the publication of religious texts in vernacular languages, making them readable for the faithful across India.
• These printed texts were portable, enabling easy access for individuals to read them at any time and place, fostering discussions and debates among different religious communities.
• Illiterate individuals could also benefit as these texts could be read aloud to them, reaching a wider circle of people and sparking controversies and dialogues.

Role of Newspapers

• Newspapers emerged as powerful tools for disseminating information and connecting communities in different parts of India, contributing to the formation of pan-Indian identities.
• They facilitated the exchange of news and ideas, stimulating discussions and debates on various topics of local and national interest.
• Newspapers like the one proposed by Krishnaji Trimbuck Ranade in Marathi aimed to provide information on a wide range of subjects, promoting scientific investigation and discussions on history, geography, and more.
• Native newspapers and political associations were seen as playing a critical role similar to the Opposition in Parliament, by analyzing government policies, suggesting improvements, and ensuring their swift implementation for the benefit of the peop

New Forms of Publication

• The emergence of printing led to a demand for diverse types of written content as literacy spread. People sought narratives that mirrored their own lives, emotions, and relationships, fueling the popularity of new literary forms.
• The novel, originating in Europe, evolved to meet this need and eventually assimilated distinct Indian elements in its forms and styles. It introduced readers to fresh experiences and a broader understanding of human existence.
• Alongside novels, other literary genres such as lyrics, short stories, and essays on social and political themes gained prominence. These writings underscored the growing focus on individual lives, personal emotions, and societal structures.
• By the late 19th century, a visual revolution was underway. The proliferation of printing presses facilitated the mass reproduction of visual content. Artists like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for widespread distribution, influencing popular perceptions of modernity and tradition.
• The availability of cheap prints and calendars in markets allowed even the economically disadvantaged to adorn their living and work spaces. These prints shaped public attitudes towards various aspects of life, including religion, politics, and culture.
• The period saw the rise of caricatures and cartoons in newspapers critiquing social and political issues. Some caricatures mocked educated Indians embracing Western culture, while others reflected anxieties about societal transformations.
• Raja Ravi Varma was renowned for his mythological paintings, many of which were reproduced at the Ravi Varma Press, contributing to the visual culture of the time.
• Print Culture

  The era of print culture ushered in a transformative period marked by the dissemination of ideas and images at an unprecedented scale, significantly influencing societal perceptions and values.

Women and Print Culture

• Women's lives and emotions were portrayed vividly in writings, leading to increased reading among women in middle-class households.
• Liberal husbands and fathers took initiatives to educate women at home and sent them to schools when women's schools were established.
• Many journals advocated for women's education, providing syllabi and reading material for home-based schooling.

Challenges and Defiance

• Conservative beliefs in some families hindered women's education, fearing outcomes like widowhood or corruption.
• Despite prohibitions, some women, like Rashsundari Debi and a girl in a Muslim family, pursued education in secrecy.

Women's Voices in Literature

• Interest in women's lives led to writings by women such as Kailashbashini Debi, Tarabai Shinde, and Pandita Ramabai highlighting women's struggles.
• Novels and writings reflected on the confined lives of women and the significance of reading in their restricted worlds.

Advocacy for Women's Education

• Hindi printing focused on women's education in the 1870s, with figures like Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein advocating strongly for gender equality in education.
• Men's resistance to women's education was criticized, emphasizing the equal right of women to education.

Indian Charivari Journal

The Indian Charivari was a satirical journal from the late nineteenth century, depicting imperial British figures and their influence on Indian society.

• Print Culture in the Early Twentieth Century
  • Journals aimed at women gained popularity during the early 20th century, covering topics such as women's education, widowhood, widow remarriage, and the national movement.
  • These journals also provided household and fashion advice, along with entertainment in the form of short stories and serialized novels.
• Folk Literature in Punjab
  • In Punjab, a similar trend was observed where folk literature became widely printed from the early 20th century onwards.
  • Ram Chaddha's publication, "Istri Dharm Vichar," aimed to educate women on being obedient wives.
  • The Khalsa Tract Society also published inexpensive booklets with similar moral messages, often presented as dialogues on the virtues of a good woman.
• Print Culture in Bengal
  • In central Calcutta, specifically the Battala area, a hub for printing popular books emerged.
  • This area offered cheap editions of religious texts, as well as literature deemed scandalous or obscene.
  • By the late 19th century, these books were heavily illustrated with woodcuts and colored lithographs.
  • Peddlers distributed Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People

• During the nineteenth century in Madras towns, very affordable small books were introduced to markets and sold at crossroads, enabling economically disadvantaged individuals traveling to markets to purchase them.
• From the early twentieth century onwards, public libraries were established, enhancing the availability of books. These libraries were primarily situated in cities, towns, and occasionally in prosperous villages.
• Setting up a library served as a means for affluent local benefactors to gain prestige.
• Starting from the late nineteenth century, discussions on caste discrimination became prevalent in numerous printed tracts and essays.
• Jyotiba Phule, a prominent figure in 'low caste' protest movements from the Maratha community, highlighted the injustices of the caste system in his work 'Gulamgiri' (1871).
• In the twentieth century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) in Madras produced influential writings on caste-related issues that garnered nationwide readership.
• Local protest movements and sects generated various popular journals and tracts critiquing ancient scriptures while envisioning a more equitable future.
• Factory workers, burdened with excessive workloads and lacking formal education, had limited opportunities to articulate their experiences. Nevertheless, figures like Kashibaba from Kanpur and Sudarshan Chakr from Bangalore contributed to literature to address caste and class exploitation.
  • Kashibaba authored and published 'Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal' in 1938, illustrating the connections between caste and class exploitation.
  • Sudarshan Chakr, a millworker from Kanpur writing between 1935 and 1955, had his poems compiled and published in a collection called 'Sacchi Kavitayan'.
• By the 1930s, workers in Bangalore cotton mills initiated the establishment of libraries for self-education, inspired by the actions of their counterparts in Bombay. These initiatives were supported by social reformers aiming to curb excessive drinking, promote literacy, and sometimes advocate nationalist ideals.

Print and Censorship

• Print Regulation Before 1798

  Colonial state under East India Company initially unconcerned with censorship.

  Early control measures targeted critical Englishmen, fearing trade monopoly attacks.

• Press Freedom Regulations by 1820s

  Calcutta Supreme Court imposed regulations; Company promoted pro-British papers.

  Revised laws in 1835 due to editor petitions; Thomas Macaulay introduced new rules.

• Post-1857 Freedom of Press

  Attitude shift after 1857 revolt; Englishmen demanded control over 'native' press.

  Vernacular papers turned nationalist, leading to stringent government measures.

  Vernacular Press Act of 1878 allowed extensive government censorship.

• Nationalist Newspapers' Growth

  Despite repression, nationalist papers increased, criticizing colonial rule.

  Efforts to silence criticism sparked protests and cycles of persecution.

  Examples include Punjab revolutionaries' deportation and Tilak's imprisonment.

• Government Challenges

  Difficulty in finding editors for loyalist papers; issues with subsidies and obedience.

  Government's continuous monitoring and laws to regulate print media.

• Print Control in War Times

  During wars, stringent controls imposed on newspapers under various Acts.

  Examples: Defence of India Rules during WWI, Sedition Committee Report in 1919.

  Impact of Defence of India Act during WWII, censoring reports on Quit India movement.

• Gandhi's View on Press Freedom

  In 1922, Gandhi highlighted the importance of freedom of speech and press.

  He emphasized the fight for freedom in the context of Swaraj and Khilafat movements.