Solutions to Impacts of Urban Growth | Geography for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Pollution

• Towns and cities have less clean air than their surrounding rural areas.
• More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) have implemented regulations over the past 60 years to control vehicle and industrial emissions.
• Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) and Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) experience the highest levels of pollution.

Types of Pollution, Impacts, and Solutions

Water, visual and noise pollution

Managing informal settlements

• Informal settlements are areas where housing is constructed without formal land rights or planning permission.
• These settlements often lack basic infrastructure such as sanitation, electricity, and clean water.
• Governments and NGOs work to improve living conditions in informal settlements through projects like slum upgrading and provision of essential services.
• Community participation is crucial in developing sustainable solutions for informal settlements.

Bulldoze and clear away

• Operation Murambatsvina, also referred to as Operation Restore Order, was a significant government initiative in Zimbabwe aimed at forcibly removing slum areas nationwide.
• It directly impacted approximately 700,000 individuals, resulting in the loss of their homes or means of livelihood, and indirectly affected around 2.4 million people.
• Officially, Robert Mugabe and his government justified the operation as a means to address illegal housing and commercial activities, as well as to mitigate the risk of infectious disease transmission.
• However, critics viewed it as a tactic to purge individuals who opposed Mugabe's administration.

Clear away but relocate people

• Occurring in Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya In 2003, the Kenyan government and UN-Habitat initiated the Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme (KENSUP) with the objective of enhancing the infrastructure and housing conditions of 5.3 million individuals residing in informal settlements in Kenya.
• The primary phase involved the construction of modern high-rise apartments, offering residents the opportunity to become owners of a unit within the new complex.
• The flagship project of KENSUP in Kibera comprises multiple concrete structures known as "The Promised Land," as named by the local community. These apartments are heavily subsidized and furnish essential services lacking in slum areas, such as water, sanitation, and electricity.

Redevelopment

• Wholesale clearance and redevelopment of squatter areas is a more drastic approach where squatters are evicted and the site is rebuilt in a formal and organized manner.
• This approach is proposed for Dharavi, Mumbai, India, and is also implemented in many old inner-city slum housing areas in the UK.
• The city authorities of Mumbai aim to enhance the quality of life for the residents, including those living in informal or squatter settlements.
• In Mumbai, the current strategy involves demolishing informal settlements and replacing them with high-rise tower blocks for accommodation.

Self-help and Site-and-Service Schemes

• Self-help programs equip individuals with skills and resources to enhance their homes, often offering low-interest loans to support upgrades.
• Site-and-service initiatives offer individuals the opportunity to purchase or rent land with basic amenities on a new or cleared site, often with low-interest loans available for construction materials.
• In Rocinha, self-help programs have transformed the area from squatter settlements to low-quality housing, with the majority of homes now equipped with basic services like electricity. Additionally, amenities such as cafes and shops have been established.
• Some residents in Rocinha have obtained legal ownership of the land upon which their houses are situated.
• The Favela Bairro Project, also known as the Slum to Neighbourhood project, is an example of a site-and-service scheme. Under this project, the local government provides residents from favelas with brick houses for rent, complete with electricity, running water, and sanitation infrastructure. Some individuals are also permitted to purchase these houses.
• These areas also feature amenities such as waste collection services, schools, and health centers.

Ignore

• Some local governments either ignore informal settlements and hope they disappear or lack the resources to invest in slum redevelopment.
• However, in certain areas like parts of Rocinha in Rio, many residents of informal settlements have gradually enhanced the stability, durability, and quality of their homes by purchasing higher-quality materials and undertaking improvements themselves.
• In some sections, residents have succeeded in this endeavor to such an extent and have established such a cohesive community that government assistance is no longer necessary.

Case Study - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

• Brazil's Economic Significance: Brazil holds a prominent position in agriculture and industry, boasting the strongest economy in Latin America, with Brasilia as its capital.
• Rio's Transformation: In 1950, Rio de Janeiro served as Brazil's capital with a population of 3 million. Today, it stands as the second-largest Brazilian city after São Paulo, with a population exceeding 12.5 million.
• Commercial Hub: Rio operates as a significant trading port, specializing in oil refining and shipbuilding, with major exports including iron, steel, and crude petroleum.
• Tourism and Events: Rio emerges as a key tourist destination, having hosted notable events like the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics.

Migration

• Rapid growth in urban migration due to job opportunities
• Despite a strong agricultural base, lack of land ownership and limited chances for progress
• Challenges in farming include low wages and significant wealth gaps
• Inadequate social amenities and susceptibility to natural disasters
• Urban areas attract migrants with better jobs, higher wages, improved education, healthcare, and lifestyle

Housing

• Influx of migration strains services and resources, leading to a scarcity of housing.
• Rural migrants typically settle in favelas like Rocinha, the most significant informal settlement located in the southern part of Rio.
• Approximately 20% of the city's population resides in about 1000 favelas scattered throughout the urban area.
• Favelas are predominantly situated on the outskirts of the city, occupying low-quality land unsuitable for traditional urban development.
• Residents lack legal ownership rights to the land they inhabit.
• Many favelas now boast well-established infrastructure, with 95% of homes constructed using solid materials like brick and 75% featuring tiled floors.
• Social amenities in some favelas include access to electricity, running water, televisions, computers, and the internet.
• Newer and less developed neighborhoods suffer from overcrowding, with shelters constructed from materials such as timber and corrugated iron clinging to mountainsides.

Transportation

• Urban expansion in Rio since the 1950s has not been complemented by adequate urban planning.
• Rio de Janeiro grapples with severe road congestion due to the rapid increase in vehicular traffic.
• Rail services are limited, with private bus services serving as the primary mode of public transportation.
• The growing affluence of residents has led to a rise in car ownership, exacerbating traffic issues.
• While underground rail services are efficient, they have a restricted number of stops along their routes.

Education

• Children in Brazil typically commence formal schooling at the age of 4.
• School hours usually span from 3 to 4 hours each day because of limited classroom space.
• In Brazil, there isn't a rigid national curriculum; however, educators adhere to state-specific guidelines.
• Educational standards in Brazil often suffer due to delayed investments in the education sector.
• Many public schools in Rio de Janeiro require urgent infrastructural improvements, contributing to subpar academic performance.
• Rio faces challenges like high rates of absenteeism, teenage pregnancies, and limited opportunities for higher education.
• Violence poses a significant obstacle to education, particularly in certain neighborhoods where children's safety en route to school is compromised.

Crime Rates

• The prevalence of these issues has risen alongside the city's expansion, partly attributed to elevated unemployment rates and minor criminal activities like pickpocketing.
• Rio grapples with challenges related to youth crime and gang violence within the favelas.
• Numerous inhabitants express feelings of insecurity within their residences, as gangs wield control over the streets through the use of firearms and engage in drug trafficking.

Environmental challenges

• The majority of residents in the favelas illegally connect to the main electrical grid, leading to unsafe conditions with multiple households tapping into the same electricity pole.
• Many households in Rio lack access to safe, running water due to widespread damage and leaks in the main water pipes, resulting in very few homes in the favelas having direct water connections.
• Access to healthcare varies across the city, with limited availability in the favelas, raising the risk of diseases such as cholera and typhoid spreading.
• Urban sprawl remains a concern as the city undergoes rapid growth, encroaching on surrounding rural areas.
• Air pollution poses a significant problem, particularly due to traffic congestion in the city center and industrial zones.
• Waste disposal presents a specific challenge in the favelas, where access is difficult, and there are no organized sewage or waste management systems.
• Improper sewage disposal results in contamination of local rivers and Guanabara Bay, harming marine wildlife and polluting the water.

Approaches to improvement

• The government perceives favelas as unpleasant areas that reflect poorly on the city's image.
• Local communities, charities, and government entities collaborate to enhance living conditions in favelas.
• The government must enhance conditions in favelas while preventing additional inward migration and the spread of favelas to other areas.

Site and service schemes in Rio

• Complexo do Alemão, comprising 60,000 homes, was constructed using improved materials and adhered to regulations, incorporating amenities like power, drainage systems, and clean water supplies.
• Enhanced accessibility within the favela was achieved through the construction of widened, paved roads, facilitating access for emergency services and waste removal.
• Formal names were assigned to roads and they were integrated into maps, integrating the neighborhood into the broader city.
• Street lighting improvements bolstered safety, particularly during nighttime hours.
• Installation of underground cables provided residents with permanent power sources, curbing illegal connections to electrical supplies.
• The Favela Bairro Project, operational from 1994 to 2008, aimed to deliver essential services to residents and formally recognize them as integral parts of the city.
• Families were trained in constructing stable foundations using robust materials.
• Residents residing in homes deemed unsafe on steep hillsides were relocated by the local government.
• Solid brick homes, equipped with power, clean running water, and sanitation infrastructure, were erected, mitigating the risk of water-borne diseases such as cholera.
• Certain residents were given the opportunity to purchase these homes and granted legal ownership of the land.
• While the success of these initiatives has varied, many living conditions have seen improvements, although the area's topography, including steep hillsides, has hindered full development.
• Challenges such as heavy rains, floods, landslides, and limited funding constrain further improvements for all residents.
• Cultural activities like samba, capoeira, and reggae are organized to deter youths from involvement in gangs and organized crime.

Self-help schemes

• Sustainable Favela Network is a charitable organization dedicated to enhancing resilience and environmental sustainability in favelas.
• Various initiatives within these favelas address environmental concerns like waste management, community gardens, and the preservation of natural surroundings.
• These efforts result in enhanced health and well-being for residents, alleviating the burden on local government finances.
• In a favela situated in Rio's Tijuca Forest, a bio-systems project was initiated to manage waste and sewerage sustainably. This project included the installation of a biodigester for gas production used in cooking, reducing pollution.
• Charities and authorities in other favelas provide training, materials, and tools to empower residents to improve their living conditions.
• Low-interest loans are available to support these improvements, fostering a sense of community, enhancing skills, employability, and reducing unemployment rates.
• Residents contribute labor, allowing funds to be allocated to essential services like power, water, healthcare facilities, and schools.
• Infrastructure developments in Rocinha, including concrete houses with basic amenities, have led to the establishment of businesses and services like pharmacies, shops, and banks.
• Rocinha has even launched its cable television channel, TV ROC, showcasing community content and events.

Government Investment

Government investment can have a significant impact on urban development. Here's a breakdown of how the Brazilian Federal Savings Bank has supported residents through offering 100% mortgages for housing:

• The Brazilian Federal Savings Bank provided 100% mortgages to residents for home purchases.
• This initiative shifted the responsibility of home upgrades and maintenance to homeowners, freeing up government funds for other community improvements like paved roads, sewer systems, and street lighting.
• However, challenges exist in favelas due to poor access and limited public transport, making it hard for residents to reach work, leading to difficulties in mortgage payment, and defaults.