The Global Tapestry | AP World History - Grade 9 PDF Download

Review of History Within Civilizations

• Emergence after the fall of classical civilizations and the ensuing interactions among new states.
• The expansion and intensification of long-distance trade networks.

Overview of World's Major Religions in 1200

• The state of major world religions around the year 1200 AD.
• Diverse religious practices and beliefs present globally during this period.

Religious Impact on History

• Events throughout history are intricately linked to various belief systems.
• Key Points:
  • Most belief systems have left a significant impact on historical events.
  • Major religions exhibit divisions in the form of subgroups and sects.
  • Understanding the theological foundations of belief systems is crucial for comprehending their influence on social, political, cultural, and military developments.
  • The origin and dissemination of belief systems are heavily influenced by cultural interactions.
• Religious Mysticism:
  • Adherents within different religions often focus on mystical experiences to deepen their connection with the divine, usually through practices like prayer and meditation.

Buddhism

• Cultures:
  • Buddhism originated in regions such as India, China, Southeast Asia, and Japan.
• Context:
  • Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who renounced worldly possessions to become the Buddha, rejecting the concept of a supreme being.
  • The core tenets of Buddhism revolve around the Four Noble Truths, emphasizing the nature of suffering and the path to liberation.
  • After Buddha's demise, Buddhism split into Theravada and Mahayana branches, each with distinct practices and beliefs.
• Impact:
  • Buddhism played a role in rejecting the caste system, appealing particularly to lower-ranking individuals.
  • While it faced absorption back into Hinduism in India, Buddhism continued to flourish in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

Christianity

• Cultures:
  • Initially rooted in a group of Jews, Christianity swiftly expanded across Europe, northeastern Africa, and the Middle East.
• Context:
  • Based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who claimed to be the awaited Messiah.
  • Christianity emphasizes devotion to God, love for others, and the belief in Jesus as the Son of God.
  • Central themes include forgiveness, eternal life through Jesus, and the notion of a fallen world in need of redemption.
• Impact:
  • Christianity's message of compassion and grace resonated with lower classes and women, eventually becoming the dominant religion in the Mediterranean by the 3rd century.
  • Its association with the Roman Empire significantly influenced global culture.

Confucianism

• Cultures:
  • Confucianism primarily thrived in China starting around 400 BCE.
• Context:
  • Founded by Confucius, this philosophy centered on restoring political and social order rather than delving into religious or philosophical matters.
  • Key principles revolve around five fundamental relationships, essential for societal harmony and structure.
• Impact:
  • Compatible with various religions, Confucianism flourished and contributed to the development of tight-knit communities in Chinese culture.

Hinduism

• Cultures:
  • Hinduism is deeply rooted in Indian culture.
• Context:
  • Hinduism centers around the belief in Brahma, the supreme force, and the concept of multiple gods as manifestations of Brahma.
  • Central to Hinduism is the pursuit of merging with Brahma, a process believed to span multiple lifetimes.
  • The adherence to dharma, or caste obligations, is seen as a pathway towards spiritual liberation (moksha).
• Impact:
  • Hinduism's association with the social caste system has hindered its widespread acceptance globally, with recent movements challenging the rigidity of the caste system.
  • Hinduism's teachings are primarily guided by texts like the Vedas and Upanishads.

Islam

• Cultures:
  • Islam emerged in caliphates, spanning regions such as North Africa, Central Asia, and Europe.
• Context:
  • Founded in the 7th century, Islam's core beliefs stem from the teachings of Prophet Muhammad as recorded in the Qur'an.
  • Salvation in Islam is attained through submission to God and adherence to the Five Pillars, which include confession, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage.
  • The division between Shia and Sunni Muslims arose from disagreements regarding Muhammad's succession.
• Impact:
  • Islam rapidly spread across the Middle East, influencing various regions and cultures.

Judaism

• Cultures:
  • Judaism is deeply ingrained in Hebrew culture.
• Context:
  • Judaism revolves around the belief that God chose a group of people to follow His laws and maintain a unique relationship with Him.
  • Central to Judaism is the notion of free will and the destiny of achieving paradise.
  • Key texts like the Torah encompass a range of content from laws and miracles to historical accounts and prophecies.
• Impact:
  • Judaism stands as one of the earliest monotheistic faiths, with a significant impact on religious history.

Religious Mysticism: Buddhism

• Buddhism Cultures:
  • India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan
• Context:
  • Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince who lived in Nepal from 563-483 BCE.
  • He rejected wealth and worldly possessions to become the Buddha (Enlightened One).
  • Buddhism does not revolve around a supreme being.
• 4 Noble Truths:
  • All life is suffering.
  • Suffering is caused by desire.
  • Freedom from desire is achievable.
  • Freedom from desire is attained by following a specific path.
• Death of Buddha (483 BCE):
  • Following Buddha's passing, Buddhism split into Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
• Theravada Buddhism:
  • Emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and views nirvana as renunciation of consciousness and self.
• Mahayana Buddhism:
  • Focuses on great rituals and spiritual comfort.
  • It is more intricate but has a wider reach.
• Impact:
  • Buddhism rejects the caste system and appealed to those of lower social ranks in India.
  • In India, Buddhism eventually merged back into Hinduism.
  • In regions like China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, Buddhism continued to flourish, spread through trade routes.

Overview of Buddhism in Different Cultures

• Cultures: India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan

  Buddhism originated in India and spread to various regions, encompassing diverse cultural practices and interpretations.

• Context: Siddhartha Gautama and the Birth of Buddhism

  Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince from Nepal in 563-483 BCE, Buddhism emerged as a response to the prevalent spiritual and societal norms of the time.

  • Key Tenets of Buddhism:
    • All life is characterized by suffering.
    • Suffering is rooted in desire.
    • Freedom from suffering can be achieved by eliminating desire.
    • Following a prescribed path leads to the cessation of desire.
  • Split into Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism:
    • Theravada Buddhism: Emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and the attainment of nirvana through renunciation of self.
    • Mahayana Buddhism: Involves elaborate rituals and offers spiritual comfort, leading to a wider dissemination of Buddhist beliefs.

• Impact of Buddhism

  Buddhism played a significant role in reshaping societal structures and belief systems:

  • Rejection of the caste system: Buddhism appealed to individuals irrespective of their social rank, challenging the hierarchical structure prevalent in societies.
  • Evolution in different regions: While Buddhism integrated back into Hinduism in India, it continued to thrive and evolve in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, facilitated by flourishing trade routes.

Buddhism Overview

• No belief in a supreme being
• Four Noble Truths:
  • All life is characterized by suffering
  • Suffering is caused by desire
  • Freedom from suffering is possible by eliminating desire
  • The path to freedom from desire is through following a prescribed path

Development of Buddhism

• Upon the death of Buddha in 483 BCE, Buddhism underwent a split leading to the formation of two major branches:
• Theravada Buddhism:
  • Focuses on meditation and simplicity
  • Views nirvana as renunciation of consciousness and self
• Mahayana Buddhism:
  • Emphasizes elaborate rituals and spiritual comfort
  • More complex in nature but has a wider geographical spread

Impact of Buddhism

• Rejection of the caste system, which appealed to those of lower social ranks
• In India, Buddhism was reabsorbed into Hinduism
• In China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, Buddhism continued to flourish
• Further spread of Buddhism occurred through trade routes

Spread of Christianity

• Christianity spread further through trade routes.

Origins and Spread

• Christianity originated as a sect of Judaism and rapidly expanded across Europe, northeastern Africa, and the Middle East.
• It was founded on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who proclaimed himself as the awaited Messiah.
• His message emphasized devotion to God, love for others, and the promise of forgiveness and eternal life through faith in him.
• Christian belief centers on the idea that Jesus is the Son of God and that salvation is attainable through him.
• Adherents believe in the creation of the world by God, its subsequent separation from Him, and the importance of seeking Him and caring for fellow beings.

Impact and Influence

• Christianity's emphasis on compassion, grace, and faith appealed particularly to the lower classes and women.
• By the 3rd century, Christianity had become the most dominant religion in the Mediterranean region.
• It later became the official religion of the Roman Empire before spreading further north and west.
• The relationship between Christianity and the Roman Empire significantly shaped global culture.

Cultures

• Originated as a community of Jews and rapidly spread across Europe, northeastern Africa, and the Middle East.

Context

• Revolved around Jesus of Nazareth, who proclaimed himself as the awaited Messiah by the Jews.
• His teachings emphasized devotion to God and love for fellow beings.
• Jesus was executed by Roman and Jewish authorities in 30 CE, with his followers believing in his resurrection and ascension to heaven.
• Doctrines were derived from the Bible, asserting Jesus as the Son of God, offering forgiveness of sins, and promising eternal life through faith in him.
• Doctrines also highlight the belief that the world was created by God but has since deviated from Him, emphasizing the importance of seeking and caring for God and others.

Impact

• The emphasis on compassion and grace through faith appealed particularly to the lower classes and women.
• By the 3rd century, Christianity had become the most dominant religion in the Mediterranean region.
• It later became the official religion of the Roman Empire and subsequently spread to the north and west, influencing global cultures significantly.

Life and Teachings of Jesus Christ

• Jesus, historically crucified in 30 CE, is believed by his followers to have risen from the dead and ascended into heaven.
• Rooted in the teachings of the Bible.
• Belief in Jesus as the Son of God offers forgiveness of sins and the promise of everlasting life through him.
• The concept that the world was created by God but has since fallen from His grace.
• Adherents are encouraged to seek God and demonstrate care for both Him and others.

Impact of Christianity

• Christianity, characterized by compassion and grace through faith, appealed particularly to the lower classes and women.
• By the 3rd century, it had become the most influential religion in the Mediterranean basin.
• It eventually became the official religion of the Roman Empire, spreading north and westward.
• The association with the Roman Empire significantly influenced global culture.

The Impact of Confucianism

• Became the official religion of the Roman Empire before spreading north and west.
• Its association with the Roman Empire significantly influenced global culture.

• Confucianism:

  Confucianism, originating in China around 400 BCE, was formulated by Confucius, a revered educator and political consultant whose teachings were compiled in the Analects.

  • Focuses on restoring political and social order rather than delving into philosophical or religious matters.
  • Promotes five fundamental relationships crucial for societal harmony: (1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling, and (5) friend to friend.

  • Impact of Confucianism:

    • Compatible with other belief systems, enabling its widespread acceptance and growth.
    • Contributed to the development of a distinctive Chinese culture characterized by close-knit communities.
    • Remained entrenched within the confines of Chinese society, shaping its values and norms.

Cultures: China (400 BCE)

• Context: Confucianism was established by Confucius, an esteemed educator and political consultant. His teachings, documented in the Analects, primarily focused on the restoration of political and social order rather than delving into philosophical or religious matters.
• Key Principles:
  • The philosophy emphasizes five essential relationships that form the foundation of a harmonious society: (1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling, and (5) friend to friend.
• Impact: Confucianism was inclusive of other belief systems, contributing to its widespread acceptance and growth. It played a pivotal role in shaping the closely-knit communities that are characteristic of Chinese culture, remaining deeply rooted within the Chinese societal framework.

Impact

• Compatible with other religions, leading to its flourishing
• Resulted in the development of a unique Chinese culture characterized by close-knit communities
• Remained rooted within the Chinese cultural context

Hinduism

• Beliefs:
  • Central belief in one supreme force known as Brahma, from whom all gods emanate (e.g., Vishnu as the preserver, Shiva as the destroyer)
  • Goal for believers is to achieve unity with Brahma, a process believed to span multiple lifetimes
  • Adherence to dharma (duties and responsibilities based on one's caste) is seen as a path towards Brahma; ultimate aim is moksha, signifying internal peace and the liberation of the soul
• Texts:
  • While there is no single sacred scripture, teachings are drawn from the Vedas and Upanishads
• Impact:
  • Significant influence on the religious and social caste system in India, hindering its global acceptance
  • Historically, Hinduism has been associated with a rigid caste system, leading to recent movements against it
  • Birthed Buddhism, as a response to certain aspects of Hinduism

Indian Culture and Beliefs

• Overview of Hindu Beliefs
  • Hinduism revolves around one supreme force known as Brahma, who is believed to have created everything. Various gods such as Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer) are considered manifestations of Brahma.
  • The ultimate goal for believers is to unite with Brahma, a process that may span multiple lifetimes. Followers live with the belief that their actions determine their status in their next life.
  • Adherence to dharma, the duties and responsibilities associated with one's caste, is believed to lead individuals closer to Brahma. The pinnacle of existence, known as moksha, promises inner peace and the liberation of the soul.
• Religious Texts and Influence
  • Unlike many other religions, Hinduism does not have a single sacred text. Instead, teachings from ancient scriptures like the Vedas and Upanishads serve as guiding principles for Hindus.
  • The influence of Hindu beliefs extends beyond spirituality and impacts the social structure, particularly through the caste system. This hierarchical system has historically hindered the widespread acceptance of Hinduism on a global scale.
• Historical Impact and Evolution
  • Over time, there have been movements within Hinduism challenging traditional practices, notably the caste system. Such rebellions have led to the emergence of alternative belief systems like Buddhism.

Key Concepts of Religious Texts

• Following dharma leads to spiritual progress towards Brahma, with moksha as the ultimate goal (inner peace and liberation of the soul).
• Vedas and Upanishads serve as guiding texts for Hindus.
• Religion and the social caste system have influenced Hinduism, hindering its global acceptance. This has led to movements such as the rebellion against the caste system and the emergence of Buddhism.
• Islam, with its caliphates and spread through the teachings of Prophet Muhammad and the Quran, emphasizes submission to Allah. The faith is structured around the Five Pillars, including confession, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. The division between Shia and Sunni Muslims has influenced the history and spread of Islam, notably in the Middle East.

Impact of Religious Texts

• The caste system in Hinduism has historically limited the global acceptance of the religion.
• Hindu movements have arisen to challenge the caste system, fostering social change.
• The birth of Buddhism can be attributed to reactions against Hindu practices.
• Islam's rapid spread to regions such as the Middle East has been influenced by factors like the division between Shia and Sunni Muslims.

Islam

• Cultures: Islam spread through caliphates in regions like North Africa, central Asia, and Europe.
• Context: In the 7th century, Muslims, followers of Allah, received teachings through Prophet Muhammad, which were compiled in the Qur'an.
• Beliefs: Salvation is achieved by submitting to God. This is exemplified through the Five Pillars of Islam:
  • Shahada (Confession of faith)
  • Salah (Prayer five times daily)
  • Zakat (Charity)
  • Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan)
  • Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca)
• Groups: The Islamic community is divided into Shia and Sunni sects, differing on the rightful successor of Muhammad.
• Impact: The teachings of Islam rapidly spread across the Middle East.

Islamic Beliefs and Practices

• Muslims, followers of Islam, believe in Allah's words revealed through Prophet Muhammad and recorded in the Qur'an.
• Salvation in Islam is attained through submission to God, as highlighted in the Five Pillars of Islam:
• 
  
  • Confession of faith
  • Prayer five times a day
  • Charity
  • Fasting during Ramadan
  • Pilgrimage to Mecca
• In the 7th century, a split occurred among Muslims into two main groups, Shia and Sunni, regarding the successor to Muhammad.
• The impact of Islam was significant, rapidly spreading to the Middle East.

Judaism: History and Beliefs

• Judaism, one of the major monotheistic faiths, centers on the Hebrews and their unique relationship with God.
• The Hebrew Bible, known as the Torah, contains a variety of literature including miracles, laws, historical accounts, poetry, and prophecies.
• God selected the Hebrews as a holy people to follow his laws and worship him, emphasizing free will and the promise of paradise.
• The world is seen as a place for enjoyment, with the destiny of the world being paradise.
• Judaism emerged with a distinct culture and belief system, shaping the foundation of monotheistic faiths.

Overview of Hebrew Cultures

• Cultures: Hebrews
  • Context: God chose a group of holy people to follow His laws and worship Him, establishing a unique relationship with God.
  • Worldview: The world is meant for their enjoyment, emphasizing free will and depicting the destiny of the world as paradise.
  • Hebrew Bible: Includes the Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry, and prophecies.
  • Impact: The Hebrew culture represents one of the earliest major monotheistic faiths.

Developments in the Middle East

Abbasid Dynasty: Golden Age to Remember

• The Abbasid Dynasty marked a significant period in the Islamic Empire spanning from 750 to 1258 CE.
• During the early to mid-9th century, it experienced a golden age characterized by remarkable developments.
• Baghdad, situated in modern-day Iraq, served as the capital of the Abbasid Dynasty.
• It emerged as a prominent center for the advancement of arts and sciences.
• Notable contributions included advancements in mathematics, exemplified by scholars like Nasir al-Din al Tusi.
• The House of Wisdom library played a crucial role in fostering intellectual growth.
• Economic activities thrived as the empire was built around a sophisticated trade system that utilized receipts and bills.

Baghdad

• Baghdad, the capital city of the Abbasid Dynasty, located in present-day Iraq, was a hub of cultural and intellectual activity.

Nasir al-Din al Tusi

• Nasir al-Din al Tusi was a renowned mathematician and scholar who made significant contributions during the Abbasid Dynasty's golden age.

Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions

• The Islamic Caliphates faced a period of decline due to internal conflicts and invasions by the Mongols.
• Challenges arose from various sources, including revolts by enslaved Turkish warriors, the rise of a new Shia dynasty in Iran, and the Seljuk Turk Sunni group.
• External pressures came from Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and notably, the Mongols.
• In 1258, the Mongols overtook and devastated Baghdad, significantly impacting the Islamic Empire.
• Subsequently, the Ottoman Turks played a role in reuniting Egypt, Syria, and Arabia to form a new Islamic state lasting until 1918.
• The Mamluks, an Egyptian group, successfully defended against the Mongols in Nazareth, contributing to the preservation of Islam in the Near East.

Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions

• Islamic Caliphates faced challenges from various factions including enslaved Turkish warriors, a new Shia dynasty in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and notably the Mongols.
• The Mongols took control of Baghdad in 1258, leading to significant destruction.
• Ottoman Turks later established a new Islamic state encompassing Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, which lasted until 1918.
• The Mamluks, an Egyptian group, emerged victorious over the Mongols in Nazareth, contributing to the preservation of Islam in the Near East.

Developments in Europe

• Europe experienced significant transformations during this period.
• Political and social structures evolved, leading to the emergence of new systems of governance.
• Technological advancements, such as the printing press, revolutionized communication and knowledge dissemination.
• Cultural movements, like the Renaissance, sparked intellectual and artistic developments across the continent.

Summary of Middle Ages

• During the Middle Ages, which followed the fall of Rome and preceded the Renaissance, Europe experienced a complex and tumultuous period.
• The Eastern Roman Empire transformed into the Byzantine Empire, while Western Europe faced a complete collapse, with Christianity remaining a dominant force.
• European Feudalism emerged as the prevailing social system, characterized by a hierarchical structure.

Key Elements of European Feudalism

• The King wielded authority over the entire kingdom, while Nobles held power over specific territories in exchange for loyalty and military service to the King.
• Vassals, lesser lords, controlled sections of Noble land and could further divide it into estates known as fiefs or manors, which were self-sufficient.
• The introduction of the three-field system helped in agricultural productivity, with fields designated for fallow, spring crops, and nutrient replenishment.
• Conflicts among lords were regulated by the code of chivalry, emphasizing principles like mutual respect and condemning betrayal.
• The society was male-dominated, where women were restricted from owning land, and inheritance followed the primogeniture system.
• Peasants or Serfs worked the land and had limited rights and freedoms outside of the manor, but their skills in trades eventually contributed to the emergence of a middle class.
• Feudalism
  • Definition: Feudalism was a social system in medieval Europe.
  • Roles:
    • King: Held power over the entire kingdom.
    • Nobles: Controlled specific sections of the kingdom in exchange for loyalty to the king and military service.
    • Vassals: Lesser lords who managed sections of noble land. They could further divide these sections, which were known as fiefs or manors. Vassals were self-sufficient.
      • Three-Field System: Introduced three fields for different seasons - fall, spring, and an empty field to restore nutrients.
      • Code of Chivalry: Regulated conflicts among lords, condemning betrayal and promoting mutual respect.
      • Gender Dynamics: The society was male-dominated. Women were unable to own land, inheritance favored the eldest son (primogeniture), and women's education was limited to domestic skills.
  • Peasants or Serfs:
    • Worked the land on the manors.
    • Had limited rights and freedoms beyond the manor.
    • Skilled in trades, which later facilitated their transition out of the feudal system as global trade expanded, contributing to the rise of a middle class comprising craftsmen and merchants.

Feudal Society Overview

• Vassals
• 
  
  • Vassals were individuals who held fiefs or manors in exchange for loyalty and military service.
  • The three-field system was established, dividing land into three fields for fallow, spring, and one left empty to replenish nutrients.
  • Conflict between lords was governed by the code of chivalry, emphasizing values like loyalty and respect.
  • Women had limited rights in this male-dominated society, unable to own land with inheritance favoring the eldest son (primogeniture).
• Three-Field System
• 
  
  • The three-field system was an agricultural practice that improved crop rotation, enhancing agricultural productivity.
• Code of Chivalry
• 
  
  • The code of chivalry was a set of rules followed by knights, promoting virtues like honor, courage, and loyalty.
• Peasants or Serfs
• 
  
  • Peasants or serfs worked the land under the authority of lords, having limited rights and freedoms.
  • Skilled in various trades, peasants contributed to the emergence of a middle class as global trade expanded.

Peasants or Serfs

• Peasants or serfs had limited rights and freedoms beyond the manor.
• They were skilled in various trades, which enabled them to move away from feudal lifestyles as global trade expanded, leading to the rise of a middle class comprising craftsmen and merchants.

Emergence of Nation-States

The emergence of nation-states marked a pivotal shift in political organization during the medieval and early modern periods. Here, independent territories consolidated into cohesive political entities with centralized authority.

Factors Contributing to the Emergence of Nation-States

• Economic Developments:
  • Advancements in trade and commerce fostered prosperity and influenced political structures.
  • Increased revenue from trade enabled monarchs to diminish feudal influences and consolidate power.
• Technological Innovations:
  • The adoption of military technologies like gunpowder reshaped warfare and favored centralized states with professional armies.
• Cultural Unity:
  • A shared language, history, or religion fostered a sense of national identity, driving unity and loyalty among the populace.
• Political Centralization:
  • Monarchs asserted control over territories, diminishing the power of nobles and local authorities to establish centralized governance.
  • Legal systems were standardized, enhancing administrative efficiency and reinforcing state authority.

• Transition to Modern Countries

  By the conclusion of the Middle Ages, a significant shift occurred as societies moved away from the traditional feudal structures of kingdoms towards more linguistically and culturally defined organizations, marking the rise of what we now recognize as modern nation-states.

• Pathways to Statehood in the 13th Century

  Germany: The path to statehood in Germany diverged as the reigning family of the emperorship faced extinction, plunging the region into a period of interregnum. During this time, the influence of merchants and tradespeople surged, reshaping power dynamics.

  England: In England, the journey to statehood saw English nobles staging a rebellion against King John, compelling him to endorse the Magna Carta. This act reinstated the rights of the nobility and laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Parliament. Subsequently, the Parliament split into the House of Lords, focusing on legal matters involving nobles and clergy, and the House of Commons, which catered to issues related to knights and affluent burghers, particularly in trade and taxation.

  France: During the 12th century, England's occupation of various French territories ignited revolts. Notably, Joan of Arc emerged as a pivotal figure, leading the resistance against English forces in Orleans. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) culminated in the unification of France and the eventual retreat of the English.

  Spain: The consolidation of Spain into a single monarchy was achieved through the union of Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. This union prompted the enforcement of religious conversion to Christianity among all residents and marked the onset of the Spanish Inquisition.

  Russia: Tartars, a group of eastern Mongols under Genghis Khan, dominated Russia until the ascension of Russian prince Ivan III in the 1400s. Ivan III's reign saw the expansion of his authority, culminating in his coronation as czar. Subsequently, Ivan the Terrible assumed power and employed a ruthless regime, notably utilizing secret police during the 1500s.

European History Overview

• Germany: Following the decline of the ruling imperial family, Germany entered a period of interregnum, allowing merchants and tradespeople to amass influence.
• England: English nobles rebelled against King John, compelling him to endorse the Magna Carta. This pivotal event reinstated noble rights and laid the groundwork for the establishment of Parliament.
• France: In the 12th century, England's territorial expansions in France instigated revolts. Joan of Arc's efforts in driving the English out of Orleans were emblematic of this resistance.
• Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): This protracted conflict culminated in the unification of France and the subsequent withdrawal of English forces.
• Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon joined forces to unify Spain under a single monarchy. Their reign witnessed the enforcement of Christianity among residents through the Spanish Inquisition.
• Russia: Initially dominated by the Tartars under Genghis Khan, Russia saw a resurgence under Russian prince Ivan III in the 1400s, who eventually ascended as czar. Subsequently, Ivan the Terrible emerged as a formidable but ruthless ruler, employing secret police tactics in governing.

England

• England's Magna Carta was later divided into the House of Lords (nobles and clergy focusing on legal issues) and the House of Commons (knights and wealthy burghers involved in trade and taxation).

France

• In the 12th century, England started occupying various parts of France, leading to revolts. Joan of Arc played a significant role in driving the English out of Orleans during the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), which ultimately unified France and caused England's withdrawal.

Hundred Years' War

• During the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), France was unified, resulting in England's eventual withdrawal.

Spain

• Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon's marriage united Spain under a single monarchy. They enforced religious conversion to Christianity for all residents, leading to the initiation of the Spanish Inquisition.

Spain: Queen Isabella, Ferdinand, Spanish Inquisition

• Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand played significant roles in the Spanish Inquisition.

Russia

• Russia was initially taken over by the Tartars, a group of eastern Mongols, under Genghis Khan in 1242.
• Russian prince Ivan III expanded his power in the 1400s and became the czar.
• Ivan the Terrible, a ruthless ruler, utilized secret police in the 1500s to maintain control.

Developments in Asia

• Asia witnessed significant advancements and changes during this period.

China and Nearby Regions

• Song Dynasty (960-1279)

  During the Song Dynasty, Confucianism was used to justify the subordination of women through practices like foot binding, where women's feet were bound after birth to maintain small sizes. Additionally, Neo-Confucianism emerged, blending Buddhist concepts related to the soul, filial piety, and the importance of maintaining proper roles and showing loyalty to superiors.

• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

  Following a brief period of Mongol dominance, the Ming Dynasty was influenced by a variety of religions including Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, and notably Buddhism in its Mahayana and Chan (Zen) forms. Mahayana Buddhism emphasized a peaceful and quiet coexistence apart from worldly values, while Chan (Zen) focused on meditation and the appreciation of beauty.

Neo-Confucianism

• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): after a short period of Mongol dominance

Ming Dynasty

• Religion: The Ming Dynasty was influenced by Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, and particularly Buddhism in two of its forms:
  • Mahayana: This form of Buddhism focused on a peaceful and quiet existence, detached from worldly values.
  • Chan or Zen: Emphasized meditation practices and the appreciation of beauty in life.

Mahayana

• Chan or Zen: Involves meditation and the appreciation of beauty in life.

Chan or Zen

Chan or Zen practice involves deep meditation techniques and a profound connection to the aesthetics of existence. For example, practitioners often engage in silent seated meditation, known as zazen, to attain mental clarity and spiritual insight.

Japan

• Japan remained relatively secluded from external influences beyond Asia for an extended period.
• In the era of Feudal Japan starting from 1192, the societal structure was hierarchical:
• 
  
  • Emperor: Held a symbolic position of authority.
  • Shogun (chief general): Acted as the chief military leader.
  • Daimyo: Controlled extensive territories, akin to powerful knights, and adhered to the Code of Bushido emphasizing values like loyalty, courage, and honor.
  • Samurai: Were divided into powerful samurai and lesser samurai, with a role similar to vassals.
  • Peasants and Artisans: Occupied lower societal strata.
  • Women: Experienced limited rights and societal status.

Japan's historical narrative unveils a society that cherished hierarchical structures deeply intertwined with codes of conduct and honor.

Lesser Samurai

• Samurai of lower rank

Peasants and Artisans

• Individuals involved in farming and craftsmanship

Peasants and Artisans

• People with limited rights and social status

India

India

Delhi Sultanate

• Islamic invader kingdom based in Delhi
• Islam's dominance in Northern India - clash of monotheism and polytheism
• Introduction of educational institutions and agricultural advancements
• Rajput Kingdoms' resistance against Muslim forces

Rajput Kingdoms

• Collection of Hindu principalities banding together against Muslim incursions

Southeast Asia

• Religion spread and established different states
• Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand
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  • Beliefs were carried through the Indian Ocean trade network
  • Crafted the Angor Wat temple

Developments in Africa

• Africa witnessed significant progress and changes over time.
• Various civilizations emerged, each contributing to the continent's rich tapestry of history.
• Economic activities such as trade and agriculture played pivotal roles in shaping African societies.
• Technological advancements, like iron smelting and agricultural innovations, revolutionized African communities.

Islamic Empire in North Africa

• The Islamic Empire expanded to North Africa during the 7th to 8th centuries, crossing the Sahara Desert and reaching the prosperous sub-Saharan regions.
• An increase in trade activity ensued.

Hausa Kingdoms

• The Hausa Kingdoms, situated off the Niger River, constituted a series of state systems in the Islamic region. They attained economic stability and religious influence through extensive trade in commodities like salt and leather, with the city of Kano notably significant.
• However, the Hausa Kingdoms faced a decline in political and economic fortunes in the 18th century due to internal conflicts.

Developments in Americas

Various significant occurrences took place in the Americas during this period.

Central and South American Civilizations

• Maya Civilization

  The Maya civilization was one of the great civilizations in Central and South America. They were known for their advanced knowledge in mathematics and astronomy. Example: The Maya developed a complex calendar system that accurately predicted astronomical events.

• Inca Civilization

  The Inca civilization thrived in the Andes Mountains in Peru. They had an expansionist policy, a well-established bureaucracy, and a unified language. Example: The Incas built an extensive system of roads and tunnels to facilitate communication and trade within their empire.

• Aztec Civilization

  The Aztec civilization emerged in Mexico in the mid-1200s. They had a capital city called Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City) and maintained a professional and strict army. Example: The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice as part of their religious beliefs, with the Sun god being a central figure in their pantheon.

Inca: My Land is Your Land

• Geographical Setting: Andes Mountains in Peru
• Expansion and Administration:
  • Expansionist Policies: Utilized a strong army, established bureaucracy, and unified language
  • Infrastructure Development: Constructed an advanced system of roads and tunnels
• Social Structure:
  • Peasant Population: Majority of the people were peasants
  • Urban Center: Capital of Cuzco boasted nearly 300,000 inhabitants by the late 1400s
  • Gender Dynamics: Women held significant roles and had the ability to inherit and pass down property to their daughters
• Religious Beliefs and Practices:
  • Polytheistic Faith: Worshiped multiple gods and engaged in human sacrifices
  • Deity Worship: Sun god held paramount importance in their religious practices
  • Death Rituals: The deceased were mummified after passing away
• Military Significance: The military played a crucial role in Inca society
• Architectural Marvels:
  • Temple of the Sun: A significant religious structure
  • Machu Picchu: Iconic architectural site showcasing their ingenuity and engineering skills