How was Italy unified? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Introduction

History of Italy

• Italy has a rich history dating back to its unification by Rome in the third century BCE. For over 700 years, it served as the extension of the Roman Republic and Empire, maintaining a privileged status and avoiding provincial conversion. Despite the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom, although it later became contested between the Lombards and the Eastern Roman Empire.
• Following the Frankish Empire's conquest, the title of King of Italy merged with that of Holy Roman Emperor. Subsequent emperors showed little interest in Italy's governance, leading to its gradual fragmentation into city-states. Southern Italy fell under the governance of the Kingdom of Sicily or Kingdom of Naples, established by the Normans, while central Italy was governed by the Pope as the temporal Papal States.

• Throughout the Renaissance, Italy became a battleground for proxy wars among major powers such as the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain, and France. Efforts toward national unity began to emerge in the 15th century, exemplified by treaties like the Italic League and the foreign policy of figures like Cosimo de Medici and Lorenzo de Medici. Renaissance writers, including Dante, Petrarch, Machiavelli, and Guicciardini, expressed opposition to foreign domination, influencing the growing sentiment for unity.
• The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marked the formal end of Holy Roman Emperor rule in Italy, though the Spanish Habsburg dynasty continued to dominate until the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). Post-war, Spain ceded territories like Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to the Austrian Empire and Sicily to Savoy, further dividing Italy into small principalities until the French Revolution in 1789.

Unification under Napoleon

• During the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as a powerful figure and extended his conquests to the Italian states, uniting them under a single administrative entity. Italy became part of the French Empire, embracing the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, while encouraging greater political participation among the populace. Napoleon's rule fueled nationalist sentiments and brought about significant liberal reforms across Europe, including Italy and Germany.
• Under Napoleon's leadership, remnants of feudalism were abolished, and the Napoleonic Code, also known as the Code Civil, was introduced. This legal framework aimed to streamline laws, promote accessibility, and replace the previous patchwork of feudal legislation. Napoleon's reign, however, faced challenges as the Napoleonic Wars unfolded, leading to the eventual decline of his empire.
• As Napoleon's grip on power weakened, other national monarchs, including Italy's viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais and Joachim Murat, attempted to assert their authority and secure their thrones. Eugène sought approval from the Austrian Empire for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, while Murat called for the support of Italian patriots in his quest to unify Italy under his rule.
• Despite their efforts, both Eugène and Murat struggled to maintain control. Eugène fought in battles such as Lützen and Mincio, defending Italy against Austria until Napoleon's abdication in 1814. Murat, after fighting in the Battle of Leipzig, reached an agreement with the Austrian Empire to preserve his throne.
• During the Hundred Days War, when Napoleon briefly returned to power, Murat realized that the European powers meeting at the Congress of Vienna aimed to depose him. In response, he issued a proclamation to Italian patriots and waged war against Austria in the Neapolitan War, seeking to bolster his rule through military means. However, Murat was ultimately defeated by the Austrians in the Battle of Tolentino in 1815.

Congress of Vienna – Italy is split again

• The Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore Europe to its former position, reversing everything that had happened since the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, however, they couldn't undo everything. The desire for unification increased.
• They tried to set aside Napoleon's changes and restore the old rulers on their thrones. Italy was once again divided into numerous states: the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies – fused from the old Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily.

• Although the Kingdom of Italy established by Napoleon crumbled, and the Italian peninsula remained fragmented through the mid-1800s, the concept of a united Italy began to take root.

Revolutions of 1848

• The Revolutions of 1848 marked a series of widespread but ultimately unsuccessful uprisings across Europe, driven by demands for constitutional monarchies, democracy, and national unification.
• In Italy, these revolutions sparked hopes for independence and unity, leading to uprisings in various Italian states such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States.
• The revolutions of 1848 in Italy were largely unsuccessful in achieving their goals of national unity, with many of the uprisings being brutally suppressed by conservative forces.
• Despite the failures of the revolutions, they left a lasting impact on Italian society by fueling nationalist sentiments and laying the groundwork for future unification efforts.
• It became evident to many Italians that the Italy established by the Congress of Vienna was ineffective and inefficient. This was demonstrated by widespread hunger resulting from crop failures, a lack of employment opportunities, and other basic needs going unmet.
• Secret societies emerged to challenge the newly established conservative governments. Some of these societies advocated for Italian nationalism and the vision of a unified Italian nation.
• The Carbonari, a notable society, sought to free Italy through armed revolts, drawing inspiration from the principles of the French Revolution.
• Members of the Carbonari faced persecution from the ruling authorities, with even attending meetings being punishable by death. Giuseppe Mazzini, a key figure in Italian unification, was part of the Carbonari and founded Young Italy, another significant organization.
• Young Italy, established in 1831, aimed at achieving the independence, unity, and establishment of a republic in Italy. It encouraged young men to join and support the unification cause, contributing to the Risorgimento movement in the mid-19th century.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi, a renowned figure in Italian unification, aligned with Mazzini in 1833 to pursue their shared goals.
• Following a failed insurrection in Piedmont in February 1834, Garibaldi fled to South America, where he engaged in battles and formed the Red Shirts, an Italian legion. His return was prompted by the election of Pope Pius IX in 1846, who had initiated reforms appealing to many discontented Italians.
• Amidst the 1848 revolutions, including the uprising in Palermo, Garibaldi returned to Italy and supported various movements for independence, including aiding the Milan government's revolt against the Austrians during the First Italian War of Independence.
• Despite initial victories, the momentum of the revolution waned, and a defeat at the Battle of Novara in 1849 led Garibaldi to relocate to Rome, where he backed the Roman Republic in the Papal States amid political turmoil.
• Napoleon III of France intervened to restore the papacy in Rome, prompting Mazzini to urge Garibaldi to defend the city. Following a valiant stand against superior French forces, Garibaldi and his allies faced a critical decision to continue resistance by retreating to the Apennine mountains, symbolizing their commitment to the cause.
• The two sides negotiated a truce and withdrew from Rome. Mazzini and Garibaldi parted on different paths, yet they would continue to fight for Italy's unification.

Second Italian War of Independence

• Charles Albert's abdication during the revolutions left the crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel II, who became the third significant figure in Italian unification. In 1859, Piedmont-Sardinia secured a secret defensive pact with France. Despite its defensive nature, Prime Minister Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia, the final major figure in Italian unification, sought to provoke Austria into conflict. He stationed troops near the border, leading the Habsburg government to issue a rejected ultimatum, thus sparking the war.
• However, France, fearing Prussian involvement, engaged in secret negotiations with Austria shortly after the war began. An armistice was signed, granting Lombardy to Sardinia-Piedmont but allowing Austria to retain control over central Italian states. Despite Emmanuel's disappointment, the French did not enforce the provision regarding Austrian control.
• In exchange for French support, Cavour agreed to cede Nice and Savoy to France, a decision that angered many Italians, including the prominent general Giuseppe Garibaldi. Garibaldi, who had abandoned Mazzini's republican ideals for the liberation of Italy, recognized Emmanuel II as the key to unification and formed an alliance with him and Cavour.
• When Cavour ceded Nice, Garibaldi, who was born there, became increasingly discontented. He continued to advocate for Italian irredentism, a movement seeking to reclaim "lost" territory based on historical or legendary claims. In response, Garibaldi launched an expedition against Sicily, successfully conquering it in his name. Meanwhile, Cavour secured the incorporation of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and most of the Papal States into Sardinia, excluding Rome. However, Cavour, concerned that Garibaldi, a democrat, was overshadowing Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy, as the unifier of Italy, took steps to counteract him.
• To thwart Garibaldi's ambitions, Cavour deployed Sardinian troops to the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. He orchestrated a plebiscite to annex Naples to Sardinia. Through his realpolitik approach, which advocates for political pragmatism and the pursuit of national interests by any means necessary, Cavour effectively outmaneuvered Garibaldi.
• Cavour's astute understanding of national and international dynamics allowed him to navigate the intricate political landscape of Europe. In contrast, Garibaldi's confrontational stance with the European monarchies posed a threat to stability. Cavour's swift annexation of various states compelled Garibaldi to relinquish his control over Naples and Sicily to Emmanuel II. Consequently, in 1861, Italy was proclaimed a united nation-state under the rule of the Sardinian King Victor Emmanuel II.

Austro-Prussian War

• Although the majority of the Italian Peninsula had been unified and the Kingdom of Italy established, Venice and the significantly diminished Papal States remained beyond their control. In 1866, Garibaldi once again took up arms, this time with the full backing of the Italian government. The escalating tensions between Austria and Prussia over the German Question provided Italy with an opportunity to attempt to seize Venice.
• Prussia, cognizant of the discontent caused by Austria's presence in Venice and Italy's desire for an ally against Austria, chose to ally with Italy. On April 8, 1866, Alfonso La Marmora, the President of the Council, reached an agreement with Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime Minister. Italy pledged to support Prussia in the event of war against Austria.
• Austria, recognizing the looming threat, extended an offer to return Venice to Italy as a gesture of goodwill. Faced with a challenging decision, La Marmora hesitated and opted not to commit to supporting a war against either Prussia or Austria. However, Prussia, unwilling to wait, severed all ties with Austria on June 12 and invaded some of its territories four days later. Italy eventually entered the fray on June 23, marking the onset of the Third Italian War of Unification.
• The Austrian Empire found itself overwhelmed by the combined forces of Italy and Prussia. Following numerous defeats, primarily at the hands of Prussia, a peace treaty was negotiated. The Armistice of Cormons, signed on August 12, signaled a cessation of hostilities, which was formalized by the Treaty of Vienna on October 3, 1866. As part of the terms outlined in the Peace of Prague, the Iron Crown of Lombardy was conferred upon Victor Emmanuel II, the King of Italy. Venice was incorporated into Italy following a plebiscite, yet Trentino, Rome, Friuli, and Trieste remained to be captured.

End of the unification

• By the conclusion of the conflict, Italy's aspiration for unity had been reinforced, marking the Third War of Independence as a pivotal stride towards complete national cohesion.
• In 1871, Prussia initiated hostilities against France, igniting the Franco-Prussian War. With French forces redirected to combat the Prussians, Italy seized the opportunity to conquer Rome, taking the Pope into captivity within his own residence. This action soured relations between the Pope and the Italian state for numerous decades. Formally, the transfer of the capital from Florence to Rome did not occur until July 1871.
• The unification of Italy culminated with the seizure of Rome, followed by the incorporation of Trentino, Friuli, and Trieste subsequent to World War I, known in Italy as the Fourth Italian War of Independence.

Aftermath

• Dante Alighieri, Machiavelli, and Cesare Borgia played significant roles in shaping the national consciousness of Italy, but it was figures like Cavour, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Emmanuel II who are often regarded as the fathers of Italy for their efforts in completing and realizing the aspirations of unification.
• However, following unification, Italy encountered numerous challenges. The revolutionary ideals that originated from France failed to fully win over the middle class and aristocracy. Additionally, the Pope remained opposed to the new state until Mussolini's rise to power.
• Furthermore, Italy faced internal struggles as its parliament grappled with gridlock, with socialists and liberals unable to find common ground on essential legislative matters. Despite unification, Italy remained disunited, with these issues persisting throughout the 19th century and, arguably, into contemporary times.