NCERT Solutions: The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Questions, Activities and Projects

Q1. Why does the civilisation studied in this chapter have several names? Discuss their significance.

Ans: The civilisation has multiple names, including Harappan, Indus, and Indus-Sarasvatī. 
Each name highlights different features:

• Harappan: Derived from Harappa, the first site excavated in the 1920s. This name emphasises the archaeological history of discovery.
• Indus: Named after the Indus River, vital for the civilisation's development and for the communities that lived along its banks.
• Indus-Sarasvatī: Reflects the importance of the Sarasvatī River and nearby river systems that supported agriculture and trade in nearby areas.

Indus Valley Civilisation

Q2. Write a brief report (150 to 200 words) summing up some of the achievements of the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation.

Ans: The Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation achieved many remarkable feats that show how advanced it was for its time. They planned their cities carefully, for example, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which were laid out in neat grid patterns with clearly separated residential and public areas. Houses were often built of uniform fired bricks, and public buildings and granaries show attention to storage and communal needs. Public health and engineering are clear from the covered drains running under streets and from houses with private bathing areas. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro reveals skills in waterproofing and water management. Agriculture supported urban life; they grew wheat, barley, pulses and cotton and kept cattle. Trade was important both within the region and with distant lands such as Mesopotamia, as shown by Harappan seals and standardised weights and measures. In arts and crafts they made fine beads, jewellery, terracotta figurines and carved seals with animal motifs. They also used a script on seals and pottery for record-keeping, though it remains undeciphered. Altogether, these achievements point to an organised society with skills in urban planning, craft production, trade and communal governance.

Q3. Imagine you have to travel from the city of Harappa to Kalibangan. What are your different options? Can you make a rough estimation of the amount of time each option might take?

Ans: To travel from Harappa to Kalibangan in ancient times, you would have several possible options:

• By river (Indus and connected waterways): Travelling by boat would usually be faster and easier for heavy goods. For a distance of about 200 kilometres, a simple river journey might take a few days (for example, about 2-4 days), depending on the current and the type of boat.
• Overland by bullock cart or pack animals: Moving by cart or with loaded animals would be slower. Covering 200 kilometres could take around 10-15 days, depending on road conditions and speed.
• On foot: People travelling on foot would take much longer, perhaps a few weeks, depending on how many hours were walked each day.

The exact time would vary with the weather, the load carried, and whether one stopped at settlements along the way.

Q4. Let us imagine a Harappan man or woman being transported to an average kitchen in today's India. What are the four or five biggest surprises awaiting them?

Ans: A Harappan individual in a modern kitchen would be surprised by:

• The widespread presence of electrical appliances such as refrigerators, electric mixers and microwaves makes cooking and food storage much easier.
• The variety of processed and packaged foods and ready-to-eat items, alongside a continuous supply of drinking water from taps.
• The common use of gas or electric stoves instead of open wood fires or simple hearths.
• Modern cookware and utensils such as stainless steel, aluminium and non-stick pans, and mass-produced tableware.
• The convenience of refrigeration and long-distance food supply, meaning seasonal foods are often available year-round.

Q5. Looking at all the pictures in this chapter, make a list of the ornaments / gestures / objects that still feel familiar in our 21st century.

Ans: Familiar ornaments, gestures, and objects in the 21st century include:

• Bangles and beads
• The 'namaste' gesture
• Mirrors and toys

Q6. What mindset does the system of reservoirs at Dholavira reflect?

Ans: The system of reservoirs at Dholavira reflects a mindset characterised by:

• Advanced planning: The carefully laid out, interconnected reservoirs show forethought and the ability to design large public works.
• Water conservation: The reservoirs reveal a deep concern for collecting and storing water in an arid region.
• Engineering skill: The design and construction indicate good knowledge of construction and water management techniques.
• Social organisation: Building and maintaining such a system would have required coordination by a group of administrators or community leaders.
• Sustainability: The system was meant to secure water for many people across seasons, showing concern for long-term survival.

Dholavira Reservoir

Q7. In Mohenjo-daro, about 700 wells built with bricks have been counted. They seem to have been regularly maintained and used for several centuries. Discuss the implications.

Ans: The discovery of about 700 brick wells in Mohenjo-daro suggests several important implications:

• Sophisticated urban planning: Many wells spread across the city point to a planned distribution of water sources so that households had reasonably easy access.
• Reliable water supply: A large number of wells implies that water was available within neighbourhoods rather than only from a single public source.
• Regular maintenance and governance: The long-term upkeep of wells indicates organised arrangements for repairs and cleaning, implying some form of local administration.
• Public health awareness: Easy access to water and well-built wells would have helped in hygiene and daily needs, reducing disease risks.
• Construction skills: Building many brick-lined wells shows technical knowledge of brickmaking and masonry sustained over generations.

Wells in Mohenjo-daro

Q8. It is often said that the Harappans had a high civic sense. Discuss the significance of this statement. Do you agree with it? Compare with citizens in a large city of India today.

Ans: The Harappan cities were well-planned, featuring:

• Organised layout: Wide, straight streets and a planned grid pattern show concern for orderly urban life.
• Effective drainage: Systematic drains and covered sewers suggest concern for cleanliness and health.
• Uniform housing: Houses of similar sizes and construction in many parts of cities hint at some degree of social planning or regulation.

Comparison with modern Indian cities:

• Similar challenges: Modern cities also face water supply, waste disposal and public-health issues.
• Varying civic responsibility: Some modern citizens and administrations maintain high standards of cleanliness and planning, while others struggle with overcrowding and pollution.
• Lesson: The Harappan example shows that good planning and public infrastructure are key to urban wellbeing; modern cities can learn from this by improving sanitation, water systems and civic management.

The Big Questions

Q1. What is a civilisation?

Ans: A civilisation is a complex stage of human society characterised by:

• Government and administration to manage societal activities.
• Urbanism involving town planning and city management, including water systems.
• A variety of crafts that utilise raw materials to create goods.
• Trade both within regions and with distant areas.
• A system of writing for record-keeping and communication.
• Cultural ideas are expressed through art, architecture, and social customs.
• Agriculture that supports both villages and cities.

Q2. What was the earliest civilisation of the Indian Subcontinent?

Ans: The earliest known civilisation of the Indian subcontinent is the Indus Valley Civilisation, also referred to as the Harappan Civilisation.

• It emerged around 2600 BCE.
• Located in the fertile plains of the Indus River and its tributaries.
• Known for its well-planned cities and advanced urban infrastructure.
• Inhabitants are called Harappans, named after the city of Harappa, the first site excavated.

Q3. What were its major achievements?

Ans: The Harappan Civilisation made significant advancements for its time. Here are some of their major achievements:

• Urban planning: Well-planned cities with grid patterns, systematic drainage and sanitation.
• Advanced architecture: Use of uniform fired bricks, multi-room houses, granaries and public buildings.
• Craft and technology: Skilled metalworking, pottery, bead-making and seal carving; they used standard weights and measures.
• Trade: Active long-distance trade, including contacts with Mesopotamia, shown by Harappan objects found abroad.
• Writing system: A script used on seals and pottery for record-keeping; full decipherment is yet to be achieved.

Page 87

Q1. For each characteristic in the list above, can you make a list of professions or occupations that might exist in such a society?

Ans: The list of professions or occupations for each characteristic of a civilisation is mentioned: 

• Government and Administration: Ruler/King/Queen, governors, tax collectors, judges, scribes, military leaders, advisers and bureaucrats.
• Urbanism (Town-Planning, Growth of Cities, Water Management, Drainage System): Architects, city planners, engineers, builders/construction workers, water management specialists, sanitation workers, surveyors and brick makers.
• Variety of Crafts (Management of Raw Materials, Production of Finished Goods): Blacksmiths, potters, weavers, carpenters, jewellers, stone masons, metalworkers and leatherworkers.
• Trade (Internal and External): Merchants, traders, shipbuilders, caravaneers, market vendors, moneylenders, warehouse managers and sailors.
• Writing (Record-Keeping, Communication): Scribes, record keepers, librarians, teachers, calligraphers, clerks, historians and archivists.
• Cultural Ideas (Art, Architecture, Literature, Oral Traditions, Social Customs): Artists, architects, sculptors, poets, musicians, storytellers, priests/religious leaders and actors.
• Productive Agriculture: Farmers, herders, fishermen, irrigation specialists, seed collectors, agricultural tool makers, animal breeders and market gardeners.

Page 93

Q1. Have a debate in class about the last two interpretations. Can you think of any others? Remember that in this case, we do not have any other source of history - no inscription, no text, no traveller's account.

Ans: Debate on the Interpretations of the Great Bath's Purpose

• Interpretation 1: Bath for the royal family only
  • Pros:
    • The elaborate design and careful finishing suggest it could have been used by an important group.
    • Its central location implies special significance.
    • Adjacent rooms might indicate areas for changing or privacy.
  • Cons:
    • No clear evidence of sharp social divisions that would restrict access only to elites.
• Interpretation 2: Public ritual or communal bathing
  • Pros:
    • The large size and careful waterproofing suggest communal use or ceremonies involving many people.
    • Its position in the city could allow public access.
  • Cons:
    • Direct proof of ritual use is not available; this remains an interpretation.
• Other possible interpretations:
  • A place for health and hygiene where many citizens could bathe regularly.
  • A water storage or treatment structure used for purification before other uses.
  • A site for social gatherings linked to seasonal or civic events.

Q2. Looking at the three Harappan seals with some writing signs, what goes through your mind? Would you like to suggest any interpretations? Let your imagination run!

Ans: Looking at the three Harappan seals, several interpretations arise:

• Unicorn seal: This may represent a clan emblem, a religious symbol or a mark of ownership, perhaps indicating identity or authority.
• Bull seal: Because bulls are linked to agriculture and strength, the seal could mark goods related to farming or symbolize fertility and economic power.
• Horned tiger seal: This might represent protection, a warrior symbol, or association with a particular group or trade.

Possible uses:

• Identification marks: Seals may have served as early forms of identity labels for people or workshops.
• Religious or ritual symbols: Some seals could be linked to beliefs or ceremonies.
• Trade marks: Seals stamped on goods would show origin or quality during trade.

Q3. Complete the story found on the Lothal pot. How was such a story remembered for more than 4,000 years, in your opinion?

Ans: Completing the story on the Lothal pot

The Lothal pot shows a thirsty crow that finds a pot with only a little water at the bottom. Unable to reach the water, the crow drops small pebbles into the pot. As the water level rises, the crow is finally able to drink. This scene teaches cleverness and patience.

Such narratives have likely been remembered for over 4,000 years through:

• Oral tradition where tales were passed down by word of mouth from one generation to the next.
• Storytelling that made the lesson easy to recall because it was told in simple, memorable episodes.
• Visual images and motifs on everyday objects, such as pottery, seals and toys, that kept the tale alive by repeating its scenes.

Think About It

Q1. Consider the 'Dancing Girl' figurine. What do you make of the attitude the figurine expresses? Observe her bangles covering an entire arm, a practice still visible in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Where else in this chapter can you spot bangles worn in this manner? What conclusion should we draw from this?

Ans: Attitude expressed by the 'Dancing Girl': The 'Dancing Girl' figurine shows confidence and grace. Her relaxed pose, with one hand on her hip, suggests movement and ease. The numerous bangles covering her arm point to a fashion or social custom that valued ornamentation and possibly signalled status or identity.

Bangles in the chapter: Similar bangles appear on other figurines and seals in the chapter. The continued presence of such arm ornaments in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan today suggests a long tradition of wearing multiple bangles. This continuity indicates lasting cultural practices and connections between ancient and modern regional customs.

Q2. Which of the above characteristics do you think is the most fundamental - that is, a characteristic essential to the development of all others?

Ans: Each characteristic plays a vital role, but productive agriculture is arguably the most fundamental. 
This is because:

• A stable food supply is essential for the survival and growth of a population.
• Once people have enough food, communities can support specialisations such as crafts, administration and long-distance trade.
• Surplus produce enables the development of towns, skilled labour and cultural activities, all of which depend on reliable agriculture.

Q3. You may have come across the term 'Indus Valley civilisation' and noticed that we have not used it. A look at the map (Fig. 6.3 on page 89) explains why the term 'Valley' is obsolete, as we now know that the civilisation extended much beyond the Indus region.

Ans: The term "Indus Valley civilisation" is commonly used to describe the ancient civilisation that developed around the Indus River. However, this term is now seen as obsolete because the civilisation's influence extended well beyond the valley itself.

• The civilisation covered a vast area, including parts of present-day India, Pakistan, and beyond.
• Referring to it as the "Indus region" or "Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation" better represents its true geographical extent.
• Archaeologists have identified various names for this civilisation, such as "Harappan" and "Indus-Sarasvatī", each highlighting different features.
• The inhabitants are known as "Harappans", named after the city of Harappa, excavated in the early 1920s.

Q4. As a class activity, measure the length of your classroom, a school corridor or a playground with the help of any measuring tape. Compare these lengths with the length of the largest reservoir in Dholavira.

Ans: For this activity, follow these steps:

• Measure the length: Use a measuring tape to measure the length of your classroom, corridor, or playground. Record the measurement in metres.
• Find the reservoir length: The largest reservoir in Dholavira is approximately 79 metres long.
• Compare the lengths: Compare your measurement with the 79-metre reservoir. Discuss whether your measured space is longer or shorter. For example, if your classroom is 10 metres long, it would take about 8 classrooms placed end to end to equal the reservoir's length.

Q5. Imagine the large number of workers required to build such a network of reservoirs. Who do you think organised their work and gave them precise instructions? How do you think they were paid for their labour? (Hint: there was no money at that time in the way we have today.) Since the reservoirs needed to be cleaned from time to time, was there some local authority to manage their maintenance? What clues do we get from all this about this city's ruler and municipal administration? Use your imagination and discuss with your teacher. Archaeologists also discuss these questions, and the answers are not always final!

Ans: The construction and maintenance of Dholavira's reservoirs likely involved:

• Organised leadership: Rulers, planners or skilled engineers would have planned the work and issued instructions.
• Supervision: Foremen or local supervisors may have coordinated labourers and craftsmen on site.
• Payment in kind: Workers were probably paid with food, clothing, shelter or other goods rather than coins, following a system of exchange and rations.
• Local maintenance authority: Regular cleaning suggests community responsibilities or municipal officials who arranged upkeep.

Q6. Looking at the objects on pages 100 and 101 - or any other pictured in this chapter - can you make out what activities or aspects of life were important for the Harappans?

Ans: Based on the objects pictured in this chapter, several important activities and aspects of life in Harappan society can be discerned:

• Daily use and craftsmanship: Objects such as bronze mirrors, terracotta pots, stone weights and bronze chisels point to skilled craft production, personal grooming and trade.
• Games and recreation: Game boards and whistles show that leisure and play were valued.
• Cultural and religious practices: Statuettes like the 'Priest King', animal seals and the 'Dancing Girl' reflect art, belief and ritual life.
• Agriculture and food production: Plough models and cooking pots indicate the importance of farming and food preparation in daily life.