Case Study Based Questions: From Trade to Territory (The Company Establishes Power) | Social Studies (SST) Class 8 PDF Download

Case Study 1

Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established control over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India. After his death in 1707, many Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting their authority and establishing regional kingdoms. As powerful regional kingdoms emerged in various parts of India, Delhi could no longer function as an effective centre.

By the second half of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the political horizon – the British. Did you know that the British originally came as a small trading company and were reluctant to acquire territories? How then did they come to be masters of a vast empire? In this chapter you will see how this came about.

Bahadur Shah Zafar and his sons being arrested by Captain Hodson After Aurangzeb there was no powerful Mughal ruler, but Mughal emperors continued to be symbolically important. In fact, when a massive rebellion against British rule broke out in 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal emperor at the time, was seen as the natural leader. Once the revolt was put down by the company, Bahadur Shah Zafar was forced to leave the kingdom, and his sons were shot in cold blood.

Question and Answers: 1 Mark

Q1: Who was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers?
Ans: Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers.

Q2: Where did Aurangzeb establish control?
Ans: Aurangzeb established control over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India.

Question and Answers: 2 Mark

Q1: Which power was emerging on the political horizon, by the second half of the eighteenth century?
Ans: By the second half of the eighteenth century, a new power was emerging on the political horizon – the British.

Q2: Why was Bahadur Shah Zafar forced to leave the kingdom?
Ans: When a massive rebellion against British rule broke out in 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal emperor at the time, was seen as the natural leader. Once the revolt was put down by the Company, Bahadur Shah Zafar was forced to leave the kingdom.

Case Study 2

In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East. This meant that no other trading group in England could compete with the East India Company. With this charter, the Company could venture across the oceans, looking for new lands from which it could buy goods at a cheap price, and carry them back to Europe to sell at higher prices. The Company did not have to fear competition from other English trading companies. Mercantile trading companies in those days made profit primarily by excluding competition, so that they could buy cheap and sell dear. The royal charter, however, could not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets. By the time the first English ships sailed down the west coast of Africa, round the Cape of Good Hope, and crossed the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese had already established their presence in the western coast of India, and had their base in Goa. In fact, it was Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered this sea route to India in 1498. By the early seventeenth century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean. Soon the French traders arrived on the scene.
The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651. This was the base from which the Company’s traders, known at that time as “factors”, operated. The factory had a warehouse where goods for export were stored, and it had offices where Company officials sat. As trade expanded, the Company persuaded merchants and traders to come and settle near the factory. By 1696, it began building a fort around the settlement. Two years later, it bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages. One of these was Kalikata, which later grew into the city of Calcutta or Kolkata as it is known today. It also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting the Company the right to trade duty free. The Company tried continuously to press for more concessions and manipulate existing privileges. Aurangzeb’s Farman, for instance, had granted only the Company the right to trade duty free. But officials of the Company, who were carrying on private trade on the side, were expected to pay duty. This they refused to pay, causing an enormous loss of revenue for Bengal. How could the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, not protest?

Question and Answers: 1 Mark

Q1: In 1600, which company acquired a charter from the ruler of England?
Ans: In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England.

Q2: Who had discovered the sea route to India in 1498?
Ans: Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered the sea route to India in 1498.

Question and Answers: 2 Mark

Q1: Where was the first English factory set up in Bengal?
Ans: The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651.

Q2: What do you mean by ‘Mercantile’?
Ans: A business enterprise that makes profit primarily through trade, buying goods cheap and selling them at higher prices.

Case Study 3

When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal. The Company was worried about his power and keen on a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade concessions and other privileges. So it tried, though without success, to help one of Sirajuddaulah’s rivals become the nawab. An infuriated Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop meddling in the political affairs of his dominion, stop fortification, and pay the revenues. After negotiations failed, the Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort there. On hearing the news of the fall of Calcutta, Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab followed. Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle. Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah. The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in India.

After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar made the nawab. The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of dministration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade. If this could be done without conquest, through the help of local rulers who were willing to grant privileges, then territories need not be taken over directly.

Question and Answers: 1 Mark

Q1: When did Sirajuddaulah become the nawab of Bengal?
Ans: When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal.

Q2: When did the British conquest of the Bengal begin?
Ans: The British conquest of the Bengal began with the battle of Plassey.

Question and Answers: 2 Mark

Q1: Why did the Battle of Plassey become famous?
Ans: The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in India.

Q2: After the defeat at Plassey, who was assassinated and who was made the nawab?
Ans: After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar made the nawab.

Case Study 4

In 1600, the East India Company obtained a charter from Queen Elizabeth I of England, granting it exclusive trading rights in the East. This meant that no other English trading group could compete with the company. Empowered by the charter, the company embarked on voyages to discover new lands where it could acquire goods at low prices and sell them in Europe at higher prices. While the charter protected the company from domestic competition, it couldn’t prevent other European powers from entering Eastern markets. Portuguese explorers, led by Vasco da Gama, had already established their presence in western India, and the Dutch and French soon followed suit. The challenge arose when these companies began vying for the same goods, such as high-quality cotton, silk, and spices like pepper, cloves, cardamom, and cinnamon. Competition drove up prices, reducing profits for all. To thrive, the trading companies resorted to eliminating rivals through battles, blockades, and seizing trading posts. Trade became intertwined with armed conflict, leading to fortifications and clashes with local rulers. The company struggled to separate trade from politics in its pursuit of profitable markets.

Q1: What was the significance of the charter granted to the East India Company in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I?
Ans: The charter granted the East India Company exclusive trading rights in the East, giving it a monopoly over trade and preventing competition from other English trading groups.

Q2: Who had already established their presence in western India by the time the English ships began sailing to the Indian Ocean?
Ans: The Portuguese, led by explorer Vasco da Gama, had already established their base in Goa and had a strong presence on the western coast of India.

Q3: What were the goods that European trading companies, including the East India Company, were interested in buying from India?
Ans: The European companies were interested in purchasing fine cotton and silk fabrics produced in India, as well as spices like pepper, cloves, cardamom, and cinnamon.

Q4: How did competition among the European trading companies affect the prices of goods from India?
Ans: The competition among the trading companies led to an increase in the prices of Indian goods, as they competed to acquire the same products. This reduced the profits that could be earned from trading.

Q5: Why did the trading companies engage in battles and fortify their settlements?
Ans: The trading companies engaged in battles and fortified their settlements to eliminate rival competitors and protect their trading posts. Trade became intertwined with armed conflict as they sought to secure profitable markets and gain an advantage over their rivals.

Case Study 5

The establishment of the first English factory occurred in 1651 along the banks of the river Hugli. This site served as the operational hub for the Company’s traders, known as “factors” at the time. Within the factory, there were storage facilities for export goods and offices where Company officials conducted their work. As trade expanded, the Company enticed merchants and traders to settle in proximity to the factory. In 1696, construction of a fort around the settlement commenced. Two years later, through bribery, the Company obtained zamindari rights over three villages from Mughal officials, including Kalikata, which eventually developed into the city of Calcutta or Kolkata as we know it today. Additionally, the Company persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting them the privilege of duty-free trade.Continuously seeking more concessions and manipulating existing privileges, the Company encountered conflicts. Although Aurangzeb’s farman had exclusively granted the Company the right to trade duty-free, the Company officials engaging in private trade on the side refused to pay duties, leading to a significant loss of revenue for Bengal. In this context, one may question why the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, did not protest against such actions.Throughout the early eighteenth century, the conflict between the Company and the nawabs of Bengal escalated. Following Aurangzeb’s demise, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and autonomy, as other regional powers did during that period. Successive rulers like Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Sirajuddaulah assumed the position of the Nawab of Bengal. Each ruler demonstrated strong leadership and denied concessions to the Company. They demanded substantial tributes for granting the Company the right to trade, refused permission to mint coins, and restricted the expansion of Company fortifications. Accusing the Company of deceit, they argued that its actions deprived the Bengal government of substantial revenue and undermined the authority of the nawab. The Company’s refusal to pay taxes, disrespectful correspondence, and attempts to humiliate the nawab and his officials further fueled the tensions.The Company responded by stating that the unjust demands from local officials were adversely affecting its trade, emphasizing that trade could flourish only if duties were abolished. The Company believed that expanding trade necessitated enlarging settlements, acquiring villages, and reconstructing forts. These conflicts ultimately led to confrontations and culminated in the historic Battle of Plassey.

Q1: When and where was the first English factory established in India, and what were its functions?
Ans: The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651. It served as a base for the Company’s traders, who were known as “factors” at the time. The factory had a warehouse for storing export goods and offices for Company officials.

Q2: How did the East India Company expand its influence and control in Bengal?
Ans: The East India Company persuaded merchants and traders to settle near the factory, built a fort around the settlement, and obtained zamindari rights over three villages through bribery. It also secured a farman from the Mughal emperor granting it the right to trade duty-free.

Q3: What were the grievances of the nawabs of Bengal against the East India Company?
Ans: The nawabs of Bengal, including Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Sirajuddaulah, accused the Company of depriving the Bengal government of revenue, undermining their authority, and making unjust demands. They demanded tributes, denied the Company minting rights, and restricted the Company’s fortifications.

Q4: How did the East India Company justify its actions and defend its interests in Bengal?
Ans: The Company argued that the demands of local officials were detrimental to its trade and insisted that trade could only prosper if duties were eliminated. It believed that expanding trade required enlarging settlements, acquiring villages, and rebuilding forts.

Q5: What were the consequences of the conflicts between the East India Company and the nawabs of Bengal?
Ans: The conflicts intensified over time and ultimately led to the Battle of Plassey. This battle marked a turning point in British colonial rule in India, with the Company emerging victorious. It paved the way for increased Company control over Bengal and laid the foundation for British dominance in the region.

Case Study 6

When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal. The Company was worried about his power and keen on a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade concessions and other privileges. So it tried, though without success, to help one of Sirajuddaulah’s rivals become the nawab. An infuriated Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop meddling in the political affairs of his dominion, stop fortification, and pay the revenues. After negotiations failed, the Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort there. On hearing the news of the fall of Calcutta, Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab followed. Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle. Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah. The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in India.

Q1: Why was the Nawab, Sirajuddaulah infuriated by the Company?
Ans: The Company was worried about his power and keen on a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade concessions and other privileges. So it tried, though without success, to help one of Sirajuddaulah’s rivals become the nawab. An infuriated Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop meddling in the political affairs of his dominion, stop fortification, and pay the revenues.

Q2: What did Sirajuddaulah do after he failed to negotiate with the British?
Ans: After negotiations failed, the Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort there.

Q3: What was the Company’s retaliation to the Nawab’s actions?
Ans: On hearing the news of the fall of Calcutta, Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab followed. Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.

Q4: What was one of the main reasons for the Nawab’s defeat at the Battle of Plassey?
Ans: One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle. Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.

Case Study 7

After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar made the nawab. The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of administration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade. If this could be done without conquest, through the help of local rulers who were willing to grant privileges, then territories need not be taken over directly. Soon the Company discovered that this was rather difficult. For even the puppet nawabs were not always as helpful as the Company wanted them to be. After all, they had to maintain a basic appearance of dignity and sovereignty if they wanted respect from their subjects. What could the Company do? When Mir Jafar protested, the Company deposed him and installed Mir Qasim in his place. When Mir Qasim complained, he in turn was defeated in a battle fought at Buxar (1764), driven out of Bengal, and Mir Jafar was reinstalled. The Nawab had to pay Rs. 500,000 every month but the Company wanted more money to finance its wars, and meet the demands of trade and its other expenses. It wanted more territories and more revenue. By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765, the mood of the Company had changed. Having failed to work with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs ourselves”.

Q1: Who was made the nawab after the Battle of Plassey?
Ans: Mir Jafar.

Q2: Why was the Company unwilling to take on administration of the city?
Ans: The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of administration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade.

Q3: Why did the Company start conquests against several rulers?
Ans: Soon the Company discovered that the expansion of trade was impossible without conquests. Even the puppet nawabs were not always as helpful as the Company wanted them to be. After all, they had to maintain a basic appearance of dignity and sovereignty if they wanted respect from their subjects.

Q4: Why was the Battle of Buxar fought? What was the consequence of the protest by Mir Jafar?
Ans: When Mir Qasim complained, he was defeated in a battle fought at Buxar (1764), driven out of Bengal, and Mir Jafar was reinstalled. When Mir Jafar protested, the Company deposed him and installed Mir Qasim in his place.

Q5: What did the Company expect the Nawab to pay? Why weren’t they satisfied?
Ans: The Nawab had to pay Rs. 500,000 every month, but the Company wanted more money to finance its wars, meet the demands of trade, and cover its other expenses. It wanted more territories and more revenue. By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765, the mood of the Company had changed. Having failed to work with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs ourselves.”

Case Study 8

Finally, in 1765 the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. This solved a major problem that the Company had earlier faced. From the early eighteenth century, its trade with India had expanded. But it had to buy most of the goods in India with gold and silver imported from Britain. This was because at this time Britain had no goods to sell in India. The outflow of gold from Britain slowed after the Battle of Plassey, and entirely stopped after the assumption of Diwani. Now revenues from India could finance Company expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

Q1: What major problem did the system of Diwani solve?
Ans: Finally, in 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. This solved a major problem that the Company had earlier faced. From the early eighteenth century, its trade with India had expanded.

Q2: Why was there an outflow of gold from Britain to India?
Ans: The Company bought goods from India in exchange for gold. This was because, at this time, Britain had no goods to sell in India.

Q3: Until when did the outflow of gold continue?
Ans: The outflow of gold from Britain slowed after the Battle of Plassey and entirely stopped after the assumption of Diwani. Now, revenues from India could finance Company expenses.

Q4: How was the revenue generated by the Company utilized?
Ans: Revenues from India could finance Company expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

Case Study 9

After the Battle of Plassey, the actual nawabs of Bengal were forced to give land and vast sums of money as personal gifts to Company officials. Robert Clive himself amassed a fortune in India. He had come to Madras (now Chennai) from England in 1743 at the age of 18. When in 1767 he left India, his Indian fortune was worth £401,102. Interestingly, when he was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1764, he was asked to remove corruption in Company administration but he was himself cross-examined in 1772 by the British Parliament which was suspicious of his vast wealth. Although he was acquitted, he committed suicide in 1774. However, not all Company officials succeeded in making money like Clive. Many died an early death in India due to disease and war, and it would not be right to regard all of them as corrupt and dishonest. Many of them came from humble backgrounds and their uppermost desire was to earn enough in India, return to Britain and lead a comfortable life. Those who managed to return with wealth led flashy lives and flaunted their riches. They were called “nabobs” – an anglicised version of the Indian word nawab. They were often seen as upstarts and social climbers in British society and were ridiculed or made fun of in plays and cartoons.

Q1: Who was Robert Clive?
Ans: Robert Clive was a British official who came to Madras from England at the age of 18. Robert Clive himself amassed a fortune in India. When in 1767 he left India, his Indian fortune was worth £401,102.

Q2: Why was Robert Clive’s appointment as governor general of Bengal ironical?
Ans: Interestingly, when he was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1764, he was asked to remove corruption in Company administration, but he was himself cross-examined in 1772 by the British Parliament, which was suspicious of his vast wealth.

Q3: Who were the nabobs?
Ans: Many British officials came from humble backgrounds, and their uppermost desire was to earn enough in India, return to Britain, and lead a comfortable life. Those who managed to return with wealth led flashy lives and flaunted their riches. They were called “nabobs” – an anglicised version of the Indian word nawab. They were often seen as upstarts and social climbers in British society and were ridiculed or made fun of in plays and cartoons.

Case Study 10

After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. They were political or commercial agents and their job was to serve and further the interests of the Company. Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states. They tried to decide who was to be the successor to the throne, and who was to be appointed in administrative posts. Sometimes, the Company forced the states into a “subsidiary alliance”. According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be protected by the Company, but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company was supposed to maintain for the purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as penalty. For example, when Richard Wellesley was GovernorGeneral (1798–1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for the “subsidiary forces”. Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.

Q1: Who were the Residents appointed by the British? What was their job?
Ans: After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. They were political or commercial agents, and their job was to serve and further the interests of the Company. Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states.

Q2: What was Subsidiary alliance?
Ans: According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to be protected by the Company but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company was supposed to maintain for the purpose of this protection.

Q3: What happened if the states failed the payment under the alliance?
Ans: If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as a penalty. For example, when Richard Wellesley was Governor-General (1798–1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for the “subsidiary forces.” Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.

Case Study 11

The Company resorted to direct military confrontation when it saw a threat to its political or economic interests. This can be illustrated with the case of the southern Indian state of Mysore. Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799). Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company purchased pepper and cardamom. In 1785, Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company. He also established a close relationship with the French in India, and modernised his army with their help. The British were furious. They saw Haidar and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous – rulers who had to be controlled and crushed. Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767–69, 1780–84, 1790–92 and 1799). Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam – did the Company ultimately win a victory. Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam, Mysore was placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

Q1: Name the rulers of Mysore that made it powerful?
Ans: Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799).

Q2: Which coast was controlled by the Mysore kingdom?
Ans: Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company purchased pepper and cardamom.

Q3: How did Tipu Sultan infuriate the British?
Ans: In 1785, Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper, and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company. He also established a close relationship with the French in India and modernized his army with their help. The British were furious.

Q4: Name the last Battle of Mysore.
Ans: The Battle of Seringapatam.

Q5: What happened after the war of Seringapatam?
Ans: In the Battle of Seringapatam, the Company ultimately won a victory. Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam. Mysore was placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars, and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

Case Study 12

From the late eighteenth century, the Company also sought to curb and eventually destroy Maratha power. With their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas’ dream of ruling from Delhi was shattered. They were divided into many states under different chiefs (sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle. These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who became its effective military and administrative head based in Pune. Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late eighteenth century. The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars. In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no clear victor. The Second AngloMaratha War (1803–05) was fought on different fronts, resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river including Agra and Delhi. Finally, the Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817–19 crushed Maratha power. The Peshwa was removed and sent away to Bithur near Kanpur with a pension. The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

Q1: Who lost in the third Battle of Panipat?
Ans: The Marathas lost in the third battle of Panipat.

Q2: How were the Marathas divided by the British after the war?
Ans: They were divided into many states under different chiefs (sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad, and Bhonsle. These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who became its effective military and administrative head based in Pune.

Q3: Name the two famous Maratha soldiers of the late eighteenth century.
Ans: Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late eighteenth century.

Q4: Write a brief about the three wars fought by the Marathas against the British.
Ans: The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars. In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no clear victor. The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) was fought on different fronts, resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river, including Agra and Delhi. Finally, the Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817–19 crushed Maratha power. The Peshwa was removed and sent away to Bithur near Kanpur with a pension. The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

Case Study 13

Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823), a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states. In order to protect its interests, it was justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom. This view continued to guide later British policies as well. This process, however, did not go unchallenged. For example, when the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka today), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti-British resistance movement. She was arrested in 1824 and died in prison in 1829. But Rayanna, a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, carried on the resistance. With popular support, he destroyed many British camps and records. He was caught and hanged by the British in 1830. In the late 1830s, the East India Company became worried about Russia. It imagined that Russia might expand across Asia and enter India from the north-west. Driven by this fear, the British now wanted to secure their control over the north-west. They fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842, and established indirect Company rule there. Sind was taken over in 1843. Next in line was Punjab. But the presence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh held back the Company. After his death in 1839, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom. Ultimately, in 1849, Punjab was annexed.

Q1: Who initiated the new policy of paramountcy?
Ans: Lord Hastings

Q2: What was the policy of paramountcy?
Ans: The Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states. In order to protect its interests, it was justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom.

Q3: What happened when the British tried to annex Kitoor?
Ans: When the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka today), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti-British resistance movement. She was arrested in 1824 and died in prison in 1829.

Q4: Who was Rayanna?
Ans: Rayanna was a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, who carried on the resistance. With popular support, he destroyed many British camps and records. He was caught and hanged by the British in 1830.

Q5: Why did the British want to establish control over the north-west?
Ans: In the late 1830s, the East India Company became worried about Russia. It imagined that Russia might expand across Asia and enter India from the north-west. Driven by this fear, the British wanted to secure their control over the north-west.

Q6: How did the British annex Punjab and Sind?
Ans: The British fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842 and established indirect Company rule there. Sind was taken over in 1843. Next in line was Punjab. However, the presence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh held back the Company. After his death in 1839, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom. Ultimately, in 1849, Punjab was annexed.

Case Study 14

The final wave of annexations occurred under (1) who was the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. He devised a policy that came to be known as the Doctrine of Lapse. The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become a part of Company territory. One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854). Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. This time the British had an added argument – they said they were “obliged by duty” to take over Awadh in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab! Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

Q1: Name the lord mentioned as 1 above.
Ans: Lord Dalhousie

Q2: What was the policy of Doctrine of Lapse?
Ans: The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become a part of Company territory.

Q3: Name the kingdoms that were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Ans: One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi (1854). Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh.

Q4: What pretext was given by the company to annex Awadh?
Ans: This time the British had an added argument – they said they were “obliged by duty” to take over Awadh in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab! Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

Case Study 15

Warren Hastings (Governor-General from 1773 to 1785) was one of the many important figures who played a significant role in the expansion of Company power. By his time the Company had acquired power not only in Bengal, but also in Bombay and Madras. British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. There were three Presidencies: Bengal, Madras and Bombay. Each was ruled by a Governor. The supreme head of the administration was the GovernorGeneral. Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of justice. From 1772 a new system of justice was established. Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat) and a civil court (diwani adalat). Maulvis and Hindu pandits interpreted Indian laws for the European district collectors who presided over civil courts. The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors.A major problem was that the Brahman pandits gave different interpretations of local laws based on different schools of the dharmashastra. To bring about uniformity, in 1775 eleven pandits were asked to compile a digest of Hindu laws. N.B. Halhed translated this digest into English. By 1778, a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European judges. Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established, while a court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta. The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector. As the title suggests, his main job was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas. His office – the Collectorate – became the new centre of power and patronage that steadily replaced previous holders of authority.

Q1: Who was Warren Hastings?
Ans: Warren Hastings was a British official who served as the first governor general of India from 1773- 1785. He was one of the many important figures who played a significant role in the expansion of Company power.

Q2: What were Presidencies? Name the 3 presidencies.
Ans: British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. There were three Presidencies: Bengal, Madras and Bombay.

Q3: What new system of justice was established by the British?
Ans: From 1772 a new system of justice was established. Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat) and a civil court (diwani adalat). Maulvis and Hindu pandits interpreted Indian laws for the European district collectors who presided over civil courts. The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors

Q4: What was the problem with the interpretations of Hindu laws? How was it solved?
Ans: A major problem was that the Brahman pandits gave different interpretations of local laws based on different schools of the dharmashastra. To bring about uniformity, in 1775 eleven pandits were asked to compile a digest of Hindu laws. N.B. Halhed translated this digest into English.

Q5: What was setup under the Regulating act of 1773?
Ans: Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established, while a court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta

Q6: Who was the principal figure in an Indian district?
Ans: The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector. As the title suggests, his main job was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas. His office – the Collectorate – became the new centre of power and patronage that steadily replaced previous holders of authority

Case Study 16

Colonial rule in India brought in some new ideas of administration and reform but its power rested on its military strength. The Mughal army was mainly composed of cavalry (sawars: trained soldiers on horseback) and infantry, that is, paidal (foot) soldiers. They were given training in archery (teer-andazi) and the use of the sword. The cavalry dominated the army and the Mughal state did not feel the need to have a large professionally trained infantry. The rural areas had a large number of armed peasants and the local zamindars often supplied the Mughals with paidal soldiers. A change occurred in the eighteenth century when Mughal successor states like Awadh and Benaras started recruiting peasants into their armies and training them as professional soldiers. The East India Company adopted the same method when it began recruitment for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army (from the Indian word sipahi, meaning soldier). As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company’s army declined. This is because the British empire was fighting in Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt where soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks. The soldiers of the Company’s army had to keep pace with changing military requirements and its infantry regiments now became more important. In the early nineteenth century, the British began to develop a uniform military culture. Soldiers were increasingly subjected to European-style training, drill and discipline that regulated their life far more than before. Often this created problems since caste and community feelings were ignored in building a force of professional soldiers

Q1: Describe the Mughal Army during the time of the British empire.
Ans: The Mughal army was mainly composed of cavalry (sawars: trained soldiers on horseback) and infantry, that is, paidal (foot) soldiers. They were given training in archery (teer-andazi) and the use of the sword. The cavalry dominated the army and the Mughal state did not feel the need to have a large professionally trained infantry. The rural areas had a large number of armed peasants and the local zamindars often supplied the Mughals with paidal soldiers.

Q2: Why did the East India Company require its own army?
Ans: A change occurred in the eighteenth century when Mughal successor states like Awadh and Benaras started recruiting peasants into their armies and training them as professional soldiers. The East India Company adopted the same method when it began recruitment for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army (from the Indian word sipahi, meaning soldier).

Q3: Why was there a decline in the cavalry requirement of the Company’s army?
Ans: As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company’s army declined. This is because the British empire was fighting in Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt where soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks. The soldiers of the Company’s army had to keep pace with changing military requirements and its infantry regiments now became more important.