Chapter Notes: Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders

Introduction

This chapter explores various categories of psychological disorders relevant to the AP Psychology exam. It covers disorders that affect behavior, cognition, emotions, and social interactions, focusing on their symptoms, characteristics, and causes. The disorders discussed include neurodevelopmental, schizophrenic spectrum, obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, trauma, eating, and personality disorders. Each category is examined to provide a clear understanding of how these conditions impact individuals and the factors contributing to their development, aligning with the scope of the AP Psychology curriculum.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders manifest in early childhood, affecting behavior, learning, communication, and social skills. Diagnosis involves assessing developmental milestones relative to age-appropriate expectations.

Characteristics of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders usually appear during childhood and can greatly affect everyday life. These conditions influence how the brain grows and handles information, causing difficulties in different areas.

Common traits include:

• Slower progress in hitting developmental goals
• Trouble with social skills and communication
• Issues with focus, memory, or learning
• Problems with movement or coordination

Some well-known disorders are:

• ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
  • Struggles with staying focused
  • Excessive activity levels
  • Acting without thinking
• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
  • Difficulty with social communication
  • Limited range of interests
  • Repeating certain behaviors

Causes of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Several factors can lead to the development of neurodevelopmental disorders. Understanding these causes helps guide treatment and early support.

Environmental factors may include:

• Exposure to harmful substances during pregnancy, like lead or alcohol
• Being born prematurely or having a low birth weight
• Birth complications that affect brain development
• Illness or high stress during pregnancy
• Trauma or neglect in early childhood

Biological influences involve:

• Differences in how certain brain areas are built or function, especially those related to focus and social behavior
• Imbalances in brain chemicals that control mood and impulses
• Hormonal issues

Genetic factors play an important part:

• A family history of these disorders can raise the risk
• Specific gene changes or mutations are linked to conditions such as ADHD and autism

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

Schizophrenic spectrum disorders disrupt thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior, ranging from acute episodes to chronic conditions. Symptoms affect five key areas: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms.

Symptoms of Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

Positive symptoms involve unusual experiences or behaviors that are added to a person's normal functioning and Negative symptoms involve the loss or absence of normal behaviors and emotions.

Delusions (False Beliefs):

• Holding onto untrue beliefs even when there is clear evidence against them
• Common delusions include:
  • Persecution: believing others are trying to harm them
  • Grandeur: believing they have special powers or great importance

Hallucinations (False Perceptions):

• Sensing things that aren't really there, like hearing voices or seeing things
• Can affect any of the senses, but hearing voices is the most common

Disorganized Thinking or Speech:

• Trouble arranging thoughts in a logical way, leading to confused or unclear speech
• May result in "word salad" - speech that makes no sense because the words are jumbled together

Disorganized Motor Behavior:

• Unusual or unpredictable body movements, which can include restlessness or complete stillness
• May involve catatonia - either excessive movement or being frozen in one position for a long time

Negative Symptoms (Missing Normal Functions):

• Lack of emotional expression (flat affect)
• Catatonic stupor - being unresponsive and not moving or speaking

Causes of Schizophrenia

The exact cause of schizophrenia is not yet fully known, but it is believed to result from a mix of genetic, biological, and environmental influences.

Genetic Factors:

• Having a family history of schizophrenia increases the risk of developing the disorder
• Certain gene variations may make someone more likely to be affected
• The interaction between genes and environmental factors can also play a role

Biological Factors:

• Imbalances in dopamine, a brain chemical that affects thinking and perception (known as the dopamine hypothesis)
• Differences in brain structure and activity, such as larger fluid-filled spaces (ventricles) and lower function in specific brain areas
• Irregularities in other neurotransmitters

Prenatal and Environmental Factors:

• Exposure to infections or poor nutrition during pregnancy
• Stressful experiences or substance use can trigger symptoms in people who are already genetically at risk

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Symptoms of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

Obsessive-compulsive disorders involve obsessions (unwanted, intrusive thoughts) and/or compulsions (repeated behaviors or mental acts done to ease anxiety).

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

• Involves both obsessions and compulsions that are time-consuming
• Causes major distress and interferes with daily life

Hoarding Disorder:

• Ongoing difficulty letting go of possessions
• Leads to excessive clutter, making living spaces hard to use and causing emotional distress

Common Features:

• Obsessions and compulsions often focus on themes like germs, order, or fear of harm
• People with OCD usually know their thoughts and actions don't make sense but feel unable to stop them

Possible Causes:

• Learned behaviors through classical conditioning
• Faulty thinking patterns (cognitive distortions)
• Difficulty managing emotions
• Biological and genetic influences

Causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders

Obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD) arise from a combination of learned behaviors, thinking patterns, emotional challenges, and biological influences. These factors work together to create and maintain obsessions and compulsions.

Learned Associations:

• Classical conditioning: Neutral situations become linked with fear or anxiety due to repeated negative experiences
• Negative reinforcement: Repetitive behaviors are continued because they temporarily reduce anxiety
• Observational learning: Seeing others display obsessive or compulsive behavior can lead to similar patterns

Maladaptive Thinking Patterns:

• Cognitive distortions: Believing that simply thinking something bad can make it happen (thought-action fusion)
• Inflated responsibility: Feeling overly responsible for preventing harm or errors
• Intolerance of uncertainty: Struggling to accept doubt, which leads to constant checking or needing reassurance

Emotional Dysregulation:

• Trouble handling upsetting thoughts or urges
• Strong reactions to feelings of contamination or disgust
• Avoiding distressing situations, which stops learning how to cope with obsessions

Biological and Genetic Factors:

• Chemical imbalances in the brain, especially with serotonin and dopamine
• Differences in brain areas that control habits and emotions, like the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex
• A family history of OCD, suggesting a possible genetic link
• Stress or trauma may trigger symptoms in those who are genetically vulnerable

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in awareness, memory, identity, or perception, often triggered by trauma or chronic stress.

Symptoms of Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders involve a disconnection between a person's thoughts, emotions, identity, or surroundings. 
Symptoms differ based on the specific type of disorder:

• Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to remember important personal details, usually linked to stress or trauma
• Dissociative Fugue: Memory loss combined with sudden travel or wandering, often with confusion about identity
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Presence of two or more separate personality states or identities
  • Symptoms can be brief or long-lasting
  • Individuals may feel detached from their thoughts, emotions, or body (depersonalization)
• Some may feel like their environment isn't real or seems dreamlike (derealization)

Causes of Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders mainly result from trauma, especially during childhood, along with chronic stress and other contributing factors.

Traumatic Experiences:

• Severe or repeated trauma in childhood (e.g., physical, emotional, or sexual abuse)
• Experiencing or witnessing extreme events (e.g., natural disasters, violence, war)
• Dissociation used as a defense mechanism to escape painful emotions or memories

Chronic Stress:

• Long-term exposure to intense stress can lead to emotional numbness and detachment
• Lack of effective coping tools or support makes it harder to handle stress
• Dissociation becomes a way to avoid feelings of helplessness or despair

Childhood Abuse or Neglect:

• Early abuse or neglect can interrupt the normal development of identity and emotions
• Dissociation helps block out or "split off" traumatic memories
• Inconsistent caregiving or lack of emotional security increases the risk

Genetic and Biological Factors:

• A family history may raise the chances of developing dissociative disorders
• Brain differences, especially in areas that manage memory and emotions, may play a role
• A mix of genetic vulnerability and environmental stress can contribute to the disorder

Trauma Disorders

Trauma disorders develop after a person experiences or witnesses a highly stressful or life-threatening event. They cause intense emotional distress and can greatly interfere with daily life.

Symptoms of Trauma Disorders

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is the main trauma-related disorder assessed in the AP Psychology exam. 
Key symptoms include:

• Intrusive memories: Flashbacks or nightmares that bring back the traumatic event
• Avoidance behaviors: Staying away from people, places, or conversations linked to the trauma
• Negative changes in mood and thinking: Feelings of guilt, fear, or emotional numbness
• Hyperarousal: Being easily startled, irritable, overly alert, or having trouble sleeping

Duration and Impact

• PTSD can be acute (lasting under 3 months) or chronic (lasting 3 months or longer)
• Trauma disorders can affect social life, work, and school performance

Causes of Trauma Disorders

Trauma disorders develop due to a mix of traumatic experiences, personal coping abilities, and biological factors.

Exposure to Traumatic Events:

• Directly going through events like serious injury, violence, or life-threatening danger
• Seeing someone else experience trauma, especially close loved ones
• Hearing about traumatic events affecting family or friends
• Repeated exposure to disturbing details (e.g., first responders, journalists)

Individual Differences in Coping:

• People with existing mental health issues (like anxiety or depression) are more vulnerable
• A lack of support or healthy coping methods makes it harder to recover
• Blaming oneself or feeling guilt or shame can make symptoms worse

Biological and Genetic Factors:

• Imbalances in cortisol or norepinephrine, which affect the body's stress response
• Differences in brain areas like the amygdala (fear processing) and hippocampus (memory)
• A family history of PTSD or other mental health conditions may suggest a genetic link
• Symptoms may appear due to both inherited traits and life experiences combined

Eating Disorders

Feeding and eating disorders involve harmful patterns of eating that impact both physical health and emotional well-being. These conditions can cause serious medical and psychological problems.

Symptoms of Eating Disorders

Eating disorders affect how people view food, their body, and self-control. Two major disorders include:

Anorexia Nervosa:

• Severely limiting food intake, leading to extreme weight loss and malnutrition
• Strong fear of gaining weight, even when underweight
• Distorted view of body size and shape
• Use of extreme methods like fasting, over-exercising, or other weight-control practices

Bulimia Nervosa:

• Binge eating: eating large amounts of food in a short time
• Purging behaviors to prevent weight gain, like vomiting or using laxatives
• Feeling a lack of control during binges, often followed by guilt or shame
• Weight may appear normal, so the disorder is less physically noticeable than anorexia

Causes of Eating Disorders

Eating disorders result from a mix of biological, psychological, and social factors. Effective treatment usually includes therapy, medical care, and nutrition support.

Biological and Genetic Factors:

• Chemical imbalances in brain chemicals like serotonin and dopamine
• A genetic tendency-higher risk if eating disorders run in the family
• Hormonal imbalances that affect hunger and fullness signals

Psychological Factors:

• Perfectionism and being overly self-critical
• Low self-worth, anxiety, and emotional struggles
• Body image issues and fear of weight gain, often made worse by outside influences

Social and Cultural Influences:

• Pressure from media and society to be thin or look a certain way
• Peer influence and diet trends that promote extreme behaviors
• Stress, trauma, or family conflict that can lead to unhealthy eating habits

Personality Disorders

Personality disorders are long-lasting patterns in how a person thinks, feels, and behaves that differ from what is considered normal in their culture. These patterns often start in the teenage years or early adulthood and usually continue over time. They can cause major problems in relationships, work, and daily life.

Personality disorders are divided into three main groups (clusters) based on shared traits:

Cluster A - Odd or Eccentric Personality Disorders

People in this group may seem strange, distant, or suspicious.

Paranoid Personality Disorder:

• Distrusts others and often believes people are out to get them
• Feels threatened even without real evidence
• Has trouble trusting even close friends and family

Schizoid Personality Disorder:

• Prefers being alone and avoids relationships
• Shows little emotion and is not affected much by praise or criticism
• Lacks interest in forming social connections

Schizotypal Personality Disorder:

• Has unusual beliefs or behaviors
• Feels anxious in social situations
• May speak or dress oddly and believe in supernatural things like telepathy

Cluster B - Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Personality Disorders

This group includes people who often have unstable emotions, relationships, or impulsive actions.

Antisocial Personality Disorder:

• Ignores rules, laws, and other people's rights
• Lies, manipulates, and shows no remorse
• Acts aggressively and recklessly

Borderline Personality Disorder:

• Has intense fear of being left alone
• Experiences sudden mood changes and acts impulsively
• May hurt themselves and feel constantly empty

Histrionic Personality Disorder:

• Seeks attention and acts very emotionally
• Emotions change quickly
• Constantly needs approval and acts in dramatic ways

Narcissistic Personality Disorder:

• Believes they are more important than others
• Lacks concern for others' feelings
• Needs constant admiration and is easily hurt by criticism

Cluster C - Anxious or Fearful Personality Disorders

This group includes people who often feel nervous, fear rejection, or need a lot of control.

Avoidant Personality Disorder:

• Feels very insecure and fears being judged
• Avoids social situations even though they want friends
• Is extremely sensitive to criticism

Dependent Personality Disorder:

• Needs others to make decisions for them
• Fears being left alone and often becomes clingy
• Is overly submissive in relationships

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD):

• Obsessed with rules, order, and perfection
• Has trouble letting others help and works too much
• Struggles with change and insists on doing things a certain way

Causes of Personality Disorders

Personality disorders arise due to a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental influences. Although specific causes can vary from person to person, research shows that genetics, brain function, early experiences, and social surroundings all play important roles in shaping personality traits and behaviors.

Genetic and Biological Factors:

• Studies show that personality disorders are more likely to occur in people who have family members with similar conditions, suggesting a genetic connection.
• Brain differences may affect how a person controls emotions, makes decisions, and interacts socially.
• Chemical imbalances in the brain, especially involving serotonin and dopamine, may lead to mood swings, impulsive behavior, or aggression.

Early Life Experiences:

• Childhood trauma or neglect (such as abuse or unstable home environments) can deeply affect how a child develops emotionally and handles stress.
• Inconsistent parenting, such as being overly harsh or neglectful, may prevent the development of healthy coping skills and emotional security.
• Unresolved early issues like feelings of being rejected or abandoned can cause problems with identity and relationships later in life.

Social and Environmental Influences:

• Cultural pressures to fit certain roles or expectations can encourage unhealthy thinking, such as perfectionism or extreme dependence.
• Peer problems, such as bullying or social isolation, may lead to behaviors that further distance a person from others.
• Stressful events, including major losses or ongoing instability, can trigger or worsen personality disorder symptoms.