Chapter Notes: Religion and Society

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Beliefs
3. Rituals
4. Superstition
5. Taboo
6. Similarities between Religion and Science
7. Difference Between Religion and Science
8. Theories of Religion
9. Functional Theories
10. Functions (Positive) and Dysfunctions (Negative) of Religion
11. Morality and Social Control
12. Relationship between Religion and Morality
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Introduction

Religion is an important part of every society, and it exists in some form in all human communities. Though religious beliefs and practices differ greatly from one culture to another, each religion provides people with a sense of purpose and helps them understand the world around them. It includes a system of shared beliefs, rituals, and customs that guide the moral and social life of people. Religion can take many forms and directions, but it always plays a vital role in uniting individuals within a society.

Definition of Religion

• According to E. B. Tylor, religion means the "belief in supernatural beings."
• According to Emile Durkheim, religion is "a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, which unites all those who follow them into a single moral community."

Beliefs

• Religious beliefs focus on sacred things, their origin, nature, and their importance to human life.
• A belief is an idea that cannot be proven or demonstrated scientifically but is maintained through rituals and customs followed by society.

Rituals

• Rituals are actions or ceremonies performed in connection with sacred things.
• According to D. N. Majumder and T. N. Madan, rituals are actions carried out in a prescribed manner to create a connection between the individual and supernatural powers.

Superstition

• Superstition means belief in the supernatural and a fear of the unknown.
• It involves belief in forces or beings that do not follow the natural or scientific laws of the universe.
• Superstitions connect unrelated events and lead people to follow certain practices blindly and repeatedly.
• Examples include belief in:
  • Magic: such as spells and curses
  • Omens: signs of good or bad luck
  • Good luck charms or rituals: like carrying a lucky coin or throwing salt over one's shoulder
  • Divination: such as fortune-telling or prophecy
  • Astrology: belief that stars and planets control human fate
  • Ghosts or spirits: belief in a world beyond scientific explanation

Taboo

The word 'taboo' is derived from the Polynesian word 'tabu,' which means 'to forbid' or 'forbidden.'

Similarities between Religion and Science

• Science is based on faith in an orderly universe governed by laws that can be discovered, while religion is based on faith in a higher power and religious teachings.
• Both science and religion try to understand the world and answer major questions about the universe, human origin, and the nature of life.
• Both focus on understanding the universe-science through experiments and observation, and religion through revelation.
• Science and religion both use reasoning, but science uses inductive reasoning while religion often uses deductive reasoning.
• Both try to explain human origins-science through theories like the Big Bang and evolution, and religion through stories of creation in sacred texts.
• Science and religion both explore what happens after death-science studies physical changes, while religion teaches about the afterlife.
• Both use experiences to understand life-science observes nature, while religion reflects on spiritual experiences.
• Science believes in natural laws, while religion believes in a divine or higher power.
• Both are based on faith and interpretation-science through scientific methods, and religion through personal belief and teachings.
• Science and religion both rely on evidence-science uses experiments and observations, while religion depends on revelation.
• Science studies the physical and biological world, while religion focuses on the spiritual and moral aspects of life.
• Both depend on revelation-religion for divine knowledge and science for discovering new truths about the universe.
• In earlier times, science and religion were closely related, and many scientists supported religious ideas. Today, fewer scientists express religious faith, and the relationship between the two remains uncertain.

Difference Between Religion and Science

• Religion is a belief system with emotions and practices that help people handle life's difficulties, while science is a collection of knowledge gained through research and observation.
• Religion deals with the non-empirical or spiritual world, while science studies the physical or observable world.
• Religion explains events as the will of God, while science explains them through objective study and logical generalizations.
• Scientific findings can be proved or disproved, while religious beliefs cannot be scientifically tested.
• Science values empirical truth and logical thinking, while religion seeks spiritual or non-empirical truth.
• Science depends on natural laws and methods, while religion depends on scriptures and faith, leading to conflicts such as the story of Joshua and the sun standing still.
• Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the religious belief in divine creation, causing disagreements about the Earth's age and the origin of humans.
• Science believes humans evolved from apes, while religion believes in divine creation, also differing in views about plants and animals.
• Science and religion differ in moral views on issues like abortion, homosexuality, and life after death.
• The conflict between religion and science continues due to differing beliefs about creation, evolution, morality, and the afterlife, leaving uncertainty about their reconciliation.

Theories of Religion

Animism

• Animism, from the Latin word anima meaning 'soul' or 'life,' was proposed by E. B. Tylor as a theory explaining the origin of religion.
• It is the belief that all living and non-living things possess a soul or spirit, and there is no division between the physical and spiritual worlds.
• Primitive humans formed the concept of the soul by observing biological events such as sleep, dreams, and death.
• In dreams, people sometimes saw dead individuals, which led to the belief in the continuation of the soul after death.
• The Todas perform two death ceremonies - one soon after death (the green ceremony) and another after some time (the dry ceremony).
• Tribes believed that natural forces had supernatural powers. To please these powers, they performed various rituals and sacrifices.
• The Santhals and Oraons worship their ancestors and family or village deities. The Kornana tribe worships the goddess of crops.
• Some tribes offer animals, birds, or even human sacrifices to please their gods.
• Good spirits are believed to be helpful, while bad spirits are harmful.
• Tylor believed that the feeling of reverence towards these invisible spirits was the foundation of early religion.
• Ancestor worship was the earliest form of worship, with tombs being the first temples.
• The belief in multiple spirits led to the development of polytheism.

Naturism

• The theory of Naturism was introduced by German scholar Max Muller.
• According to Muller, religion originated from the primitive human attempt to explain natural events and their causes.
• Early humans could not understand natural phenomena like thunder, lightning, earthquakes, or floods, so they believed these were acts of supernatural powers.
• They thought that natural disasters showed God's anger, while good weather and harvests showed divine happiness.
• Out of fear and gratitude, people began worshipping nature, especially in hunting, gathering, and early farming communities.
• Different gods were associated with elements of nature - the Sun God, Moon God, Fire God, Rain God, Wind God, and Earth Mother.
• Elaborate rituals were performed to maintain harmony with these forces.
• Primitive farmers practiced rituals to influence nature and ensure good crops.
• Even today, nature worship continues in various parts of the world.
• For example, the Munda tribe threw stones from hilltops to imitate thunder and bring rain, while the Ho tribe burned sticks to create smoke resembling clouds.

Thus, early humans explained natural events through observation and experience, leading to the development of religion.

Totemism

• Totemism refers to a tribal social system connected with supernatural beliefs involving animals, plants, or natural objects.
• A totem is an animal, plant, or symbol considered sacred and closely linked to a tribe or clan.
• Primitive tribes respected and feared their totems, believing they protected and guided them.
• Members of a tribe associated themselves with the totem, which often became the name of their group.
• Totemism was linked with exogamy, meaning marriage outside the totem group, to avoid what was believed to be a sacred relationship.
• It was considered taboo to kill or eat the totem, though some festivals allowed such acts.
• A religious value was attached to totems, and lineage was traced through them.
• Many tribes like the Bhils, Gonds, Mundas, Hos, and Oraons attach great importance to totemic beliefs and practices.

Functional Theories

The main scholars of the Functionalist School are Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Émile Durkheim.

• Malinowski stated that religion is linked to human emotions and mental tension. It helps individuals cope with stress and provides comfort during uncertainty.
• For example, the Trobriand Islanders perform religious ceremonies before fishing expeditions to reduce anxiety and seek success.
• Radcliffe-Brown viewed religion as a way to strengthen social bonds and encourage dependence on the community rather than on individual feelings.
• For example, the Mahalis worship 'Surji Devi' every twelve years for the welfare of their village and share food after the ritual, promoting unity.
• Both Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown believed that religion serves both individual and social needs, and their ideas complement each other.
• Durkheim explained that religion arises when people gather for collective activities like festivals, where they feel the power of their group as something sacred.
• He believed religion symbolizes the superiority of the collective over the individual and helps train people in social behavior.
• Durkheim divided religion into two main elements: beliefs (static part) and rites (dynamic part). Beliefs alone form theology.
• He also introduced the concepts of the sacred and the profane. The sacred refers to deities or symbols of society, while the profane includes ordinary or non-religious aspects, such as magic.
• For example, the Mahalis' worship of 'Surji Devi' is sacred, but their private family deity 'Orak Bonga,' about whom nothing is shared with outsiders, belongs to the profane category.

Thus, religion serves to promote social unity, moral guidance, and proper behavior within society.

Functions (Positive) and Dysfunctions (Negative) of Religion

Religion often serves as a calming force in human life, helping people overcome inner struggles and giving them hope and meaning. However, it can also create divisions within society.

Positive Functions of Religion

• Religion promotes social unity: Religion forms the base of social values and guides individual behavior. By providing shared beliefs and moral standards, it strengthens the bonds among members of society.
• Religion as an agent of socialization: From early life, religion teaches people the accepted norms and values of society. It shapes their moral character and influences how they interact with others.
• Religion promotes social solidarity: Every religion encourages cooperation, brotherhood, and a sense of belonging among its followers. Common rituals, beliefs, and traditions bring people together. As Emile Durkheim noted, religion plays a key role in maintaining social solidarity.

Negative Functions (Dysfunctions) of Religion

• Religion as an obstacle to social progress: Religion can make people rigid and resistant to change by promoting traditional beliefs and superstitions. It often discourages scientific thinking and modern ideas, slowing down social development.
• Promotion of harmful practices: Some religions have supported outdated and harmful customs such as animal or human sacrifice, sati, suicide, and untouchability. These practices persisted due to blind faith and religious justification.
• Religion as a tool of exploitation: Karl Marx saw religion as a means of exploiting the poor and oppressed. It teaches people to accept suffering as their fate, while the powerful use religion to justify inequality and maintain control.
• Religion fosters communalism: Religious intolerance can lead to hatred and conflict among different groups. History shows that communal violence-such as riots between Hindus and Muslims in India or between Catholics and Protestants in England-has often been fueled by religious differences.

Morality and Social Control

Meaning of Morality

• Descriptive: The actual moral rules followed by a society, religion, or individual.
• Normative: The ideal code of conduct that rational people would agree to follow in a given situation.

Definition of Social Control

• MacIver: Social control is the process by which society maintains order and harmony and adapts to change.
• Horton and Hunt: It includes all the ways a society ensures that its members follow accepted norms and expectations.
• Parsons: It is the mechanism through which deviant behavior is corrected by sanctions, ensuring social stability.

Forms of Social Control

1. Informal (Unplanned or Incidental) Control
This form of control operates through everyday social interactions and moral influence. It is learned through the process of socialization within families, peer groups, schools, and communities.

• Rewards: Praise, appreciation, good grades, promotions, or social acceptance.
• Sanctions: Ridicule, gossip, rejection, or loss of relationships.

These rewards and punishments encourage people to behave according to social norms.

2. Formal (Planned or Deliberate) Control
Formal control is exercised by official institutions like the government, police, courts, and other agencies that enforce laws and regulations.

• For example, police maintain order by preventing unlawful acts.
• Courts and the judiciary impose penalties on lawbreakers.
• Government bodies regulate businesses, food standards, and construction codes.

Thus, formal control maintains discipline through legal sanctions.

Relationship between Religion and Morality

Emile Durkheim described religion as "a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things."
Morality, on the other hand, refers to the set of rules that help us distinguish right from wrong based on conscience.

Both religion and morality guide human behavior, but they differ in motivation and authority:

• In religion, people act rightly out of fear of God.
• In morality, behavior is guided by the voice of conscience.
• The authority of religion is divine, while morality is based on reason and social conscience.
• Violation of religious rules is seen as a sin, while moral failure is considered wrong or unethical.

Points of Relationship Between Religion and Morality

• Religion and morality are deeply connected, as religion lays down rules of conduct that often align with moral behavior.
• Every religion has its own moral code, which shapes the values of its followers.
• Moral values are often supported and justified by religious beliefs.
• Moral and religious rules are interdependent - morality addresses human behavior directly, while religion influences it indirectly.
• Disobeying moral rules leads to social disapproval, while disobeying religious rules is believed to invite divine punishment.

Hence, while morality can exist without religion, religion cannot exist without a moral foundation.

Morality and Social Control

Morality is one of the strongest instruments of social control because it shapes human behavior through conscience and social expectations. It operates mainly through informal means, such as customs, mores, and social institutions.

Key Means of Moral Social Control

• Folkways: Everyday habits and social customs that maintain order and stability. Children learn these through socialization in families and communities.
• Mores: Stronger forms of norms that define right and wrong behavior. They represent society's moral code and have greater binding force than folkways.
• Family: The family teaches moral values and responsibilities. In Indian culture, it is a parent's moral duty to care for and guide their children until they become independent.
• Neighbourhood: Social approval or disapproval from neighbors (like gossip, ridicule, or respect) ensures that individuals conform to community norms.
• Customs: Long-established practices that develop naturally over time. They promote social unity, though their influence has declined in modern, rational societies.
• Religion: Religion distinguishes between right and wrong, sacred and profane. It unites members of a group through shared beliefs and moral behavior.

In conclusion, morality acts as a guiding force for human conduct and serves as an essential tool of social control. Without it, society would lose cohesion and order.

Moral Code

Religious Code