UPSC Science & Technology November 2025 Current Affairs PDF Download

Why did Version 1 fall short?

• Slow implementation - Policies existed but coordination on the ground was weak.
• Limited state engagement - Few states drafted plans; Kerala was the only major success story, reporting a small decline in AMR.
• Narrow sector focus - Veterinary, agricultural, and environmental aspects were largely neglected.
• Weak enforcement - Misuse of banned growth-promoting antibiotics like Colistin continued in livestock.

How severe is AMR in India today?

• High infectious disease burden exposes more patients to antibiotics and accelerates resistance.
• Widespread overuse and self-medication of antibiotics.
• Critical resistance emerging:
  • E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae show rapidly increasing resistance
  • Even last-resort drugs are losing effectiveness

Why is AMR a multi-sectoral challenge?

• Agriculture & animal husbandry: Antibiotics used as growth promoters.
• Veterinary medicine: Poor antibiotic regulation and oversight.
• Environmental contamination: Pharmaceutical and animal waste entering water and soil.
• Aquaculture & food chain spread: Residues increasing community-level resistance.

Why is One Health essential?

• Recognises interdependence of human, animal and environmental health.
• Supports integrated surveillance and coordinated action across sectors.
• Addresses resistance at its origin-community settings and ecosystems.

Priorities for NAP-AMR Version 2

• Strong antibiotic stewardship in hospitals and communities.
• Robust national surveillance network beyond temporary pandemic laboratory setups.
• Mandatory state-level participation and compliance.
• Accountability for misuse in:
  • Human healthcare
  • Veterinary practices
  • Agricultural and food systems

Conclusion

India is at a decisive moment-policy must convert into strong enforcement. The effectiveness of NAP-AMR Version 2 will rely on sustained stewardship, inter-sectoral collaboration and a committed One Health approach. Failure to act now risks making antimicrobial resistance the largest public health crisis of the decade.

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Redefining the Narrative of TB Eradication Worldwide

Why in News?

The control of tuberculosis (TB) has experienced significant advancements, particularly with the development of point-of-care molecular diagnostics. These innovations have revolutionized TB detection, overcoming limitations of traditional methods that often delayed diagnosis and treatment, especially in remote areas.

Key Takeaways

• Introduction of portable PCR platforms has enhanced TB diagnosis accessibility.
• Rapid molecular diagnostics like Truenat play a crucial role in global TB control.
• India's innovations in diagnostics are recognized globally, contributing significantly to TB eradication efforts.
• Holistic approaches are necessary for effective TB care, addressing socio-economic factors alongside medical treatment.

Additional Details

• Point-of-Care Diagnostics: These systems, such as Truenat, provide results in under an hour, allowing for immediate treatment decisions, which is critical in managing TB effectively. For instance, Nigeria's integration of Truenat has nearly doubled the detection of rifampicin-resistant cases.
• Innovative Testing Approaches: Nigeria's use of stool-based testing for children highlights a significant advancement in diagnosing pediatric TB, which has historically been challenging due to difficulties in obtaining sputum samples.
• Global Recognition: The Kochon Prize awarded to Molbio Diagnostics underscores the importance of Indian innovations in TB diagnostics and their influence on global health.
• India's National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP): This initiative has been essential in deploying molecular testing units across India, leading to faster diagnosis and treatment initiation.
• Need for Comprehensive Care: Addressing TB requires more than just diagnostics; it involves tackling malnutrition and socio-economic inequities that contribute to the disease's prevalence.

As the world confronts the challenge of TB, it is vital to sustain momentum through continued investment in integrated health solutions. By combining diagnostics with treatment access, social support, and addressing structural determinants, we can make significant strides toward TB elimination.

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Indigenous Gene-Editing Tech Set to Boost Affordable GE Agriculture

Why in News?

Indian scientists have developed a homegrown, "miniature" alternative to the globally patented CRISPR-Cas system, which is used for precise genome editing in plants. The CRISPR-Cas system is a natural bacterial defense mechanism that has been adapted for genome editing purposes. It employs guide RNA to direct a Cas enzyme, like Cas9, to a specific DNA sequence, where it cuts the DNA at that precise location. The cell's repair mechanisms then allow for the insertion, deletion, or modification of genes.

Key Takeaways

• Development of a new indigenous genome-editing technology using TnpB proteins.
• Strengthens India's ability to produce genome-edited crops at a lower cost.
• Reduces dependence on foreign proprietary tools for gene editing.

Additional Details

• Gene Modification vs Gene Editing:
  • Gene Modification: Involves introducing foreign DNA from a different species into an organism. For example, inserting a gene from another plant species to enhance disease resistance.
  • Gene Editing: Makes precise alterations to an organism's existing DNA without adding foreign genes. This process can include deletions or corrections at specific DNA sites, analogous to correcting a word in a document.
• India's First GE Rice Varieties:The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has announced two CRISPR-edited rice varieties:
  • Samba Mahsuri (IIRR): Edited the cytokinin oxidase 2 gene using CRISPR-Cas12a for higher yield.
  • MTU-1010 (IARI): Edited the DST gene using CRISPR-Cas9 for drought and salinity tolerance.
• TnpB Technology:The newly developed tool utilizes transposon-associated TnpB proteins, which function similarly to Cas9/Cas12a as molecular scissors. Key benefits include:
  • Smaller size (400-500 amino acids) compared to Cas9 (1,000-1,400) and Cas12a (1,300).
  • Facilitated delivery via viral vectors, bypassing the need for tissue-culture-based delivery.
  • Utilizes TnpB derived from Deinococcus radiodurans, a bacterium known for its resilience in harsh environments.
• Impact of TnpB-Based Editing:This indigenous tool offers advantages such as:
  • Freedom from foreign intellectual property control.
  • Lower costs for developing GE crops.
  • Easier DNA delivery due to the compact size of the protein.
  • Potentially alleviates concerns regarding foreign corporate dominance in agriculture.

The development of TnpB technology represents a significant advancement in India's agricultural biotechnology sector, enabling the country to enhance its agricultural productivity while minimizing reliance on international patents and licensing fees.

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ESTIC 2025 - Building a Future-Ready India through Research, Innovation, and Inclusivity

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister of India addressed the Emerging Science, Technology and Innovation Conclave (ESTIC) 2025 at Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi. This conclave aims to shape India's science, technology, and innovation (STI) landscape in alignment with the nation's aspiration of becoming a Viksit Bharat (Developed India) by 2047. The ESTIC replaces the Indian Science Congress, which was the oldest assembly of scientists in India and had not convened since 2023, marking a pivotal moment in India's R&D trajectory.

Key Takeaways

• Focus on empowering women in science and enhancing STEM participation.
• Significant investments in research funding and innovation frameworks.
• Highlighting the importance of emerging and sunrise sectors, including AI and clean energy.

Additional Details

• Research Funding: The establishment of the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) aims to enhance research capabilities within universities, supported by a ₹1 Lakh Crore Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Fund to foster a private sector-driven R&D ecosystem.
• Technological Advancements: India is advancing in various sectors such as green hydrogen, quantum computing, and deep-sea research, emphasizing inclusive technological transformation.
• Women Empowerment: Women's participation in STEM has significantly increased, with current patent filings exceeding 5,000 annually compared to under 100 a decade ago.
• AI Initiatives: The launch of the India AI Mission with a ₹10,000 crore investment aims to democratize artificial intelligence and establish India as a leader in ethical AI practices.

The ESTIC 2025 conclave highlights India's commitment to leading the global conversation on ethical and inclusive science and innovation. By linking research with societal advancements and empowering women and youth, India is transitioning from a technology consumer to an innovator and exporter. The motto "Jai Vigyan, Jai Anusandhan" reflects India's vision of becoming a knowledge-driven, self-reliant, and technologically empowered nation.

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The INO that wasn't and the JUNO that is

Why in News?

The completion of China's Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO) represents a significant advancement in global particle physics. However, this achievement is juxtaposed with the stalled progress of India's Neutrino Observatory (INO), highlighting contrasting trajectories in scientific endeavors influenced by public trust, planning, and political dynamics.

Key Takeaways

• JUNO's success underscores a sustained national commitment to scientific research.
• INO's stagnation illustrates the impact of administrative challenges and community engagement failures.
• Neutrino experiments are crucial for understanding fundamental questions in physics, such as neutrino mass ordering.

Additional Details

• Neutrinos: These are among the most elusive particles in the universe, capable of passing through matter with minimal interaction. Their study requires large underground detectors shielded from background noise.
• Progress Comparison: While JUNO has achieved significant milestones, including a high-precision measurement of θ₁₂, INO's progress has been hampered by community opposition and bureaucratic delays.
• Consequences for INO: The project's ambitious design and location have led to local fears, insufficient engagement, and environmental concerns, which have stifled funding and international collaboration.
• Future of Neutrino Physics: Missing the current opportunities may lead India to lag in upcoming scientific advancements, necessitating greater investment and international cooperation.

In conclusion, the contrasting fates of JUNO and INO reflect how national policies and community involvement shape the future of scientific exploration. For India to regain its place in fundamental physics, it must enhance public engagement, establish long-term planning, and streamline its administrative processes to support its talented scientists.

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Sentinel-6B Satellite

Why in News?

The Sentinel-6B satellite was recently launched from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California, marking a significant step in ocean observation and climate monitoring.

Key Takeaways

• Joint mission of NASA, NOAA, and the European Space Agency.
• Designed to measure rising sea levels and their implications for the planet.
• Continues the legacy of Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, launched in November 2020.
• Orbits the Earth at 7.2 km per second, completing a revolution every 112 minutes.
• Expected to provide precise sea level measurements for approximately 5.5 years.

Additional Details

• Components of Sentinel-6B: The satellite is equipped with six onboard science instruments, featuring two fixed solar arrays and two deployable solar panels. It operates in a non-Sun-synchronous orbit.
• Significance: Sentinel-6B plays a crucial role in observing Earth's oceans, enhancing weather forecasts, flood predictions, and safeguarding public safety. It also benefits commercial industries and protects coastal infrastructure.

The Sentinel-6B satellite represents a critical advancement in the monitoring of oceanic changes and climate impacts, providing vital data that supports both scientific research and practical applications.

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UNESCO's New Guidelines for the Use of Neurotechnology

Why in News?

UNESCO has introduced the world's first global normative framework on the ethics of neurotechnology. This development marks a significant shift in the governance of brain-data systems, addressing the expansion of neurotechnology beyond healthcare into areas such as marketing, political persuasion, and employment screening. The framework seeks to protect essential aspects like mental privacy, cognitive liberty, and brain-derived data amid rising concerns over the misuse of neurodata.

Key Takeaways

• UNESCO's framework aims to protect human rights in the context of neurotechnology.
• The rapid expansion of neurotechnology raises significant ethical and privacy concerns.
• Investment in neurotechnology has surged, with implications for various sectors.

Additional Details

• Neurotechnology: Refers to devices and procedures that access, assess, or act upon neural systems, encompassing both medical and non-medical applications.
• Neurodata: This includes brain-derived data that can provide insights into intentions and emotions, posing risks of exploitation.
• Ethical Challenges: The misuse of neurotechnology raises concerns regarding mental privacy, political manipulation, and employment discrimination.
• Framework Proposals: UNESCO's guidelines advocate for a foundation based on human rights, responsible innovation, and inclusive participation in the development of neurotechnologies.

In conclusion, UNESCO's guidelines represent a foundational step towards governing an emerging field where the capabilities of technology have outpaced ethical considerations. By emphasizing the importance of mental privacy and responsible innovation, these guidelines aim to ensure that neurotechnology serves as a tool for empowerment rather than manipulation. Countries, including India, face the challenge of integrating these recommendations into national laws to promote safe and responsible neuro-innovation.

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Ricin: The New Bio-Weapon

Why in News?

Recent investigations following the Delhi Bomb Blast have uncovered a plan to utilize ricin, a highly toxic biological agent, for large-scale terror attacks.

Key Takeaways

• Ricin is a potent toxin derived from castor beans.
• It has been identified as a potential bioterrorism agent due to its lethality and availability.

Additional Details

• Origin: Ricin is a protein extracted from the mash remaining after castor beans (Ricinus communis) are processed for castor oil.
• Discovery: It was first isolated in 1888 by German scientist Peter Hermann Stillmark, who documented its harmful effects on cells.
• Mechanism of Action: Ricin disrupts protein synthesis within human cells, leading to rapid cell death, tissue damage, and multi-organ failure. Even a small quantity, measured in micrograms, can be lethal.
• Routes of Exposure: Ricin can be harmful if inhaled, ingested, or injected, leading to severe symptoms such as respiratory collapse, gastrointestinal bleeding, seizures, and circulatory failure.
• Treatment: Currently, there is no antidote for ricin poisoning. Medical treatment focuses on supportive care, including oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids, activated charcoal (if ingestion is recent), and mechanical ventilation.
• Weaponisation Risk: Due to its availability and extreme toxicity, ricin poses a significant risk as a bioweapon.

Legal Classification and Security Implications

• International Status: Ricin is categorized under Schedule 1 of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and is regulated under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).
• Indian Legal Framework: It is criminalized under the Chemical Weapons Convention Act of 2000 and the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), with offenses classified as non-bailable.
• Penalties: Violating laws regarding ricin can lead to life imprisonment under Indian legislation.
• WMD Classification: Ricin falls under the Weapons of Mass Destruction and Delivery Systems Act of 2005, categorizing it as a weapon of mass destruction.
• Dual-Use Concern: As castor is an industrial crop, ricin is considered a dual-use agent, necessitating stringent monitoring of castor bean by-products.

In summary, the potential for ricin to be used as a bioweapon raises significant concerns about public safety and security, emphasizing the need for tight regulation and monitoring to prevent its misuse.

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Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) onboard Aditya-L1

Why in News?

Scientists at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), in collaboration with NASA, have achieved a significant milestone by making the first spectroscopic observations of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) in the visible wavelength range using the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) aboard the Aditya-L1 mission.

Key Takeaways

• The VELC is India's first solar observatory mission and serves as its primary scientific payload.
• It is designed to study various solar phenomena, including coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar wind dynamics.
• Aditya-L1 is positioned at the Lagrange Point 1 (L1) for continuous solar observation.

Additional Details

• VELC Overview: The VELC is an internally occulted coronagraph capable of imaging, spectroscopy, and spectro-polarimetry of the solar corona, the outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere.
• Objectives: The mission aims to investigate coronal mass ejections (CMEs), solar wind acceleration, coronal temperature, plasma velocity, and magnetic field dynamics near the solar limb.
• Capabilities: VELC can observe the corona as close as 1.05 solar radii from the Sun's surface, equipped with a spectrograph and polarimeter for high-resolution data collection.
• Significance: This mission provides the first-ever spectroscopic data of CMEs near the Sun, enhancing our understanding of space weather and solar activity.
• Key Findings:
  • Electron Density: ~370 million electrons per cubic centimetre within the CME, significantly higher than the ambient solar corona.
  • Energy Released: ~9.4 × 10²¹ joules, equivalent to nearly 100 trillion times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb.
  • Mass of CME: ~270 million tonnes, approximately 180 times the mass of the iceberg that sank the Titanic.

Overall, the Aditya-L1 mission is a groundbreaking initiative that positions India at the forefront of heliophysics research, providing crucial insights into solar activities that impact space weather and Earth's technological systems.

Back2Basics: Aditya-L1 Mission

• India's first space-based solar mission, developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• Launched in 2023 and located at the Lagrange Point 1 (L1), approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, allowing for uninterrupted solar observation.
• The mission's objectives include studying the Sun's outer atmosphere, solar radiation, magnetic storms, and space weather phenomena.

Scientific Payloads

• Visible Emission Line Coronagraph: Solar corona imaging.
• SUIT: Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope.
• SoLEXS: Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer.
• HEL1OS: High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer.
• ASPEX: Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment.
• PAPA: Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya.
• Magnetometer: Measures magnetic fields at L1.

This mission enhances India's capabilities in solar observation and strengthens its role in global heliophysics research, providing vital early warnings for geomagnetic storms that could affect satellites and power grids.

UPSC 2022 Question:

If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

• 1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
• 2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
• 3. Power grids could be damaged.
• 4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
• 5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
• 6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 3 and 4 only
• (c) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only*
• (d) 2, 5 and 6 only

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Altermagnetism: A New Class of Magnetic Order

Why in News?

In 2024, scientists confirmed the existence of a new type of magnetism known as altermagnetism, which integrates characteristics of both ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.

Key Takeaways

• Altermagnetism combines features of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
• It has been experimentally validated in 2024 after initial discovery in 2019.
• Significant implications for future electronics and materials science.

Additional Details

• Overview: Altermagnetism is a novel form of magnetism that was first identified in 2019 and confirmed through experiments in 2024. It merges traits of both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic behaviors.
• Mechanism: In altermagnets, atoms exhibit opposite (antiparallel) spins similar to antiferromagnets, yet their alignment adheres to mirror or rotational symmetry rather than a simple alternating pattern.
• Magnetic Effect: This phenomenon occurs without an external magnetic field, causing electrons to display differing energy levels between spin-up and spin-down states.
• Discovery: The first observation was made in manganese telluride (MnTe) using advanced techniques such as photoemission and X-ray imaging.
• Scientific Relevance: Altermagnetism introduces a new class of materials that are magnetically neutral but electronically active, which could be pivotal for the development of next-generation electronic devices.

Distinctive Properties

• Zero External Magnetism: Altermagnets do not generate an external magnetic field but exhibit significant internal spin asymmetry.
• Spin-Polarised Currents: They are capable of transmitting electric currents that behave like magnetic currents without generating stray magnetic fields.
• Ultrafast Response: These materials can operate at terahertz (THz) frequencies, making them around 1000 times faster than standard magnetic devices.
• Stable Performance: Altermagnets maintain their magnetic order even when environmental conditions vary.
• Crystal-Based Symmetry: Their magnetic properties originate from the atomic structure rather than external magnetic influences.

How does it differ from other Magnetisms?

• Ferromagnetism: In ferromagnetic materials, all spins align in the same direction, resulting in a strong external magnetic field.
• Antiferromagnetism: Antiferromagnetic materials have spins that align in opposing directions, completely canceling out magnetism while maintaining equal energy levels between the spins, leading to no net external field, but still exhibiting internal magnetic effects.

Applications

• Spintronics: Altermagnetism enables compact, energy-efficient data storage and logic devices.
• Quantum Computing: It provides magnetically quiet materials, enhancing the stability of qubits.
• High-Speed Electronics: Supports the development of ultrafast processors that can operate at terahertz frequencies.
• Advanced Sensors: Useful for accurate and low-noise magnetic detection technologies.

In conclusion, altermagnetism represents a significant advancement in the field of magnetism, with promising applications in various high-tech domains, including electronics and quantum computing.

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ISRO's LVM3 Rocket Launches GSAT-7R

Why in News?

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully launched the GSAT-7R (CMS-03) communication satellite for the Indian Navy from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.

Key Takeaways

• The LVM3 rocket is ISRO's heaviest and most powerful launch vehicle.
• GSAT-7R enhances secure communications and maritime domain awareness for the Indian Navy.
• This launch marks a significant step towards India's self-reliance in defense space infrastructure.

Additional Details

• Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3): Formerly known as GSLV Mk-III, LVM3 is designed to carry payloads of up to 4 tonnes to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) and 8 tonnes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
• Configuration: It features a 3-stage system, including S200 solid boosters, an L110 liquid core, and a C25 cryogenic upper stage, providing high thrust and precision.
• Mission Legacy: LVM3 has successfully launched various missions, including Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3, and OneWeb satellites.
• Future Upgrade: Plans are in place to enhance its efficiency by replacing the current stages with a semi-cryogenic kerosene-liquid oxygen stage.
• GSAT-7R (CMS-03): This advanced satellite weighs approximately 4,410 kg and is the heaviest communication satellite launched from Indian soil, designed for secure communications across the Indian Ocean Region.

This launch not only reinforces India's capabilities in heavy launch vehicles but also strengthens its position within the global space economy.

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Potential Amendments in India's Nuclear Power Sector

Why in News?

The Indian government is poised to introduce significant changes in the nuclear sector, which has been historically hindered by strict regulations and liability issues. Two proposed amendments to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010, and the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, aim to revitalize India's atomic energy policy by facilitating private and foreign investment, thereby addressing the urgent need for reliable energy sources amidst the growing reliance on renewable energy.

Key Takeaways

• Proposed amendments aim to ease legal constraints on nuclear energy, promoting private sector participation.
• Focus on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as a modern solution to energy needs.
• Potential for significant foreign investment and advanced technology integration.

Additional Details

• Current Challenges: India's nuclear sector has faced a state monopoly and stringent liability laws that have deterred private investments.
• Amendments Overview:
  • The CLNDA is expected to be amended to ease supplier liability, which currently restricts foreign companies from engaging in the Indian nuclear market.
  • The Atomic Energy Act, 1962, may be revised to allow private entities to participate in nuclear power generation, marking a historic shift.
• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): These are compact, transportable nuclear reactors that can be built more efficiently and with enhanced safety features. Their development aligns India with global leaders in nuclear technology.

In summary, the anticipated amendments signal a transformative phase for India's nuclear energy policy, merging private investment with public interests to ensure a sustainable, secure, and carbon-neutral energy future.

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Rising Energy Demand of AI Data Centres 

 Introduction 

India is looking into the use of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) to meet the increasing electricity demand from AI-driven and data-intensive data centres.

 Rising Power Demand from Data Centres 

• The demand for data centres in India is being fueled by the need for data storage due to the Digital India initiative, data-localisation policies, a growing number of internet users, and the rollout of 5G.
• Global electricity supplied to data centres is expected to rise significantly, from about 460 TWh in 2024 to over 1,000 TWh by 2030 and approximately 1,300 TWh by 2035.
• AI workloads in data centres require a large number of Graphic Processing Units (GPUs), with individual racks consuming 80-150 KW compared to 15-20 KW for traditional enterprise servers.
• This computational intensity drives a huge demand for electricity, making AI the biggest driver of increased energy consumption in the data centre sector.
• Major tech companies like Google and Microsoft are turning to nuclear power solutions for reliable and carbon-free energy to meet this rising demand.

 Need for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) 

• AI-driven data centres require sustainable and clean energy solutions to meet their rapidly increasing power demand.
• While renewable energy has been the initial choice for companies, it faces challenges of intermittency and insufficient storage. Nuclear power presents a viable solution by offering a clean, round-the-clock power supply.
• SMRs are preferred because they enhance safety, flexibility, scalability for incremental capacity addition, adaptability to remote or off-grid applications, and cost-effective construction through prefabrication.

 What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)? 

• Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, roughly one-third the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power plants.
• Small - physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
• Modular - making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
• Reactors - harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
• There are four main types of SMR i.e., light water, high temperature gas, liquid metal, and molten salt.
• At present, only two Small Modular Reactor projects have become operational worldwide;
• Russia's Akademik Lomonosov floating power unit, equipped with two 35 MWe modules and in commercial use since 2020, and
• China's HTR-PM demonstration project, which was grid-connected in 2021 and achieved full commercial operations in 2023.

 What are the Concerns? 

• Regulatory Challenges: The current nuclear regulatory framework is primarily designed for large-scale reactors. The possibility of using SMRs to produce materials for nuclear warheads and co-locating them with military sites raises non-proliferation concerns.
• Legal Hurdles: India's Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, channels operators' liability to equipment suppliers, deterring foreign investors due to financial risk concerns.
• High Initial Costs: Although SMRs are designed to be more cost-effective in the long run, the initial capital investment is significant.
• Waste Management: Handling and disposing of nuclear waste remains a significant challenge.
• Supply Chain and Manufacturing: Developing a robust supply chain for the components of SMRs and ensuring quality manufacturing processes are critical for their success.

 Global SMR regulatory reforms 

To address the challenges associated with Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), countries worldwide are reforming their regulations in six main ways:

• Technology-neutral frameworks: These frameworks replace large reactor-specific rules, allowing for a more flexible approach to SMR regulation.
• Streamlined licensing: This includes fleet approvals and combined construction-operating licences, making the licensing process more efficient.
• Modular manufacturing accommodation: This involves factory fabrication certification, allowing for the factory-based production of SMR components.
• International harmonisation: This is achieved through International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) standards and mutual design recognition, ensuring a consistent regulatory approach across countries.
• Risk-informed requirements: These adjust emergency planning zones and staffing requirements proportionate to the smaller facility risks associated with SMRs.
• Accelerated deployment pathways: This facilitates follow-on units, speeding up the deployment of SMRs.

 India's efforts towards SMRs 

• Research and development on SMRs are ongoing at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai.
• The Bharat Small Reactor (BSR) is a notable project under this initiative, aiming to re-engineer existing reactors with enhanced safety features and improved efficiency.
• India had announced a Rs 20,000 crore R&D mission for the development of small modular reactors (SMRs).
• India is also targeting the deployment of at least five indigenously developed reactors by 2033.
• India and France have launched a cooperation program focused on SMRs and advanced modular reactors (AMRs).

 Way Ahead 

• Data centres play a crucial role in India's digital economy and AI future, but their high energy consumption poses a sustainability challenge.
• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer a strategic solution by providing reliable and green power, while also promoting domestic nuclear manufacturing and international collaborations.
• To realise this potential, it is essential to implement legislative reforms, address liability concerns, and ensure safety and public trust in SMR technology.

GS3/Science and Technology

Bharat NCAP 2.0

Why in News?

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has released a revised draft of the Bharat New Car Assessment Programme (Bharat NCAP), updating the 2023 version, which is valid until September 2027. This new draft significantly expands the programme's scope by introducing new mandatory crash tests, revised scoring criteria, and additional assessment areas. A notable change is the inclusion of Vulnerable Road User (VRU) protection tests, particularly focusing on pedestrian safety, which accounts for over 20% of road accident fatalities in India. For the first time, vehicles will be evaluated on their pedestrian safety features, including impact protection, braking systems, and design elements aimed at reducing injury risks. The overall goal of the revised Bharat NCAP is to enhance road safety by incentivizing manufacturers to produce vehicles that are more crashworthy and provide better protection for both occupants and pedestrians.

Key Takeaways

• Bharat NCAP 2.0 introduces mandatory crash tests and a revised star rating system.
• Focus on pedestrian safety with new assessments for VRUs.
• Expanded safety assessment framework covering five areas instead of three.

Additional Details

• Bharat NCAP: This is a voluntary vehicle safety rating system that evaluates cars beyond basic roadworthiness. It employs India-specific crash protocols, awarding a five-star safety rating to the best performers.
• Expanded Safety Assessment Framework:The Bharat NCAP 2025 now evaluates vehicles across five assessment areas:
  • Safe Driving - 10%
  • Accident Avoidance - 10%
  • Crash Protection - 55%
  • Vulnerable Road User Protection - 20%
  • Post-Crash Safety - 5%
• More Comprehensive Crash Tests: The new version mandates five crash tests, including frontal and side impacts at various speeds, to assess real-world injury risks.
• Enhanced Injury Assessment: Utilizes Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) to evaluate injury risks for adult and child occupants across all seating positions.
• Protection for Vulnerable Road Users: Incorporates tests for assessing pedestrian and cyclist safety measures, addressing high pedestrian fatalities in India.
• Mandatory Impact Tests: Assess vehicle designs to minimize injuries during collisions, focusing on pedestrian legform and headform impacts.
• Post-Crash Safety Measures: Ensures that vehicles are designed to protect occupants after an accident, evaluating energy management for fire and electrical hazards.
• Revised Star Rating System: The thresholds for 4-star and 5-star ratings have been raised, and a minimum Adult Occupant Protection (AOP) score of 55% is required to qualify for 3 stars or above.

The Bharat NCAP 2.0 aims to establish stricter safety standards and enhance vehicle safety ratings, ultimately promoting safer driving conditions and reducing road fatalities.

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Study on Lithium-Rich Red Giant Stars and Helium Abundance

Why is it in the News?

A recent study by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) has found a connection between Lithium-rich red giant stars and their increased helium levels.

What are Red Giant Stars?

• Overview: These are stars that have moved on from their initial phase and have used up the hydrogen in their cores. This depletion causes the core to contract, and as a result, the outer layers of the star expand, creating a large, cool, and reddish envelope around the core.
• Formation Process: As the core contracts, its temperature rises. Simultaneously, the outer shell of the star expands and cools down. This process triggers hydrogen burning in the shell surrounding the core.
• Temperature and Luminosity: During this phase, the surface temperature of the star drops to between 2,000 and 5,000 Kelvin. However, despite the drop in temperature, the luminosity of the star increases significantly due to the vast increase in its radius.
• Internal Fusion: Eventually, helium fusion starts in the core of the star. This process produces heavier elements such as carbon and oxygen.
• Evolutionary Stage: Red giant stars represent the later stage in the life cycle of medium-mass stars. For instance, our Sun is expected to enter this phase in approximately 5 billion years.
• End Stage: In the final stages of a red giant star's life, the outer layers are expelled, forming a planetary nebula. What remains is a white dwarf, which is the remnant of the star's core. This white dwarf will continue to cool down over time. 

Key Findings of the Study

• New Discovery: The Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) has made a groundbreaking discovery by establishing the first spectroscopic link between helium enhancement and lithium enrichment in red giant stars.
• Data Source: This finding is based on observations made using the Himalayan Chandra Telescope, along with archival global spectroscopic datasets.
• Sample Profile: The study focused on a sample of 20 cool giant stars, including 18 red giants and 2 supergiants.
• Helium-Enriched Stars: Out of the stars studied, six exhibited high ratios of helium to hydrogen (He/H > 0.1), indicating significant helium enrichment.
• Distribution: Among these helium-enriched stars, five were red giants, and one was a supergiant. This distribution highlights a trend of helium enhancement in lithium-rich giant stars.
• Scientific Insight: The study provides direct evidence of deep internal mixing and nucleosynthesis processes that shape the surface chemical composition of red giant stars.

Correlation between Lithium and Helium

• Coupled Enrichment: All the helium-enhanced giants in the study were also found to be lithium-rich. This suggests that there is a shared internal mixing mechanism that brings both elements to the surface.
• Asymmetry: Interestingly, not all lithium-rich giants exhibited helium enhancement. This implies that lithium can be elevated to the surface without a corresponding increase in helium.
• Internal Mixing Role: The study proposes that deep convection within the star likely dredges up newly formed helium and lithium from the interior and brings them to the photosphere, the outer layer of the star.
• Photospheric Evidence: The changes driven by internal mixing are detectable on the stellar surface during the red giant stage, as confirmed by the photospheric evidence gathered in the study.

Significance of the Findings

• First Measurement: This research provides the first direct spectroscopic estimates of photospheric helium for both normal and lithium-rich red giants.
• Astrophysical Value: The findings refine our understanding of the processes of mixing, nucleosynthesis, and energy transport within red giant branch (RGB) stars.
• Galactic Evolution: The study enhances models of how stars contribute heavier elements to the interstellar medium, which is crucial for understanding galactic evolution.
• Methodological Advance: The research strengthens indirect techniques for measuring helium in cool stars, especially in cases where helium lines are not visible.
• Evolutionary Insight: The findings indicate that helium enrichment plays a vital role in changes related to luminosity, temperature evolution, and mass-loss pathways in red giant stars.

GS3/Science and Technology

Clearest Black Hole Merger Signal Allows Probe of Hawking's Law

Why in News?

Researchers have made a groundbreaking discovery by detecting the clearest gravitational wave signal, known as GW250114, resulting from the merger of black holes. This event provides strong evidence supporting Stephen Hawking's Black Hole Area Theorem proposed in 1971.

Key Takeaways

• The gravitational wave signal GW250114 was detected on January 14, 2025.
• It was observed by LIGO (USA), Virgo (Italy), and KAGRA (Japan).
• The merger involved two black holes, each approximately 30 times the mass of the Sun, located 1.3 billion light-years from Earth.
• This discovery strengthens the validation of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.
• Results were published in the Physical Review Letters in September 2025.

Additional Details

• Black Holes: Regions in space where gravity is so intense that not even light can escape. They are formed when a massive star collapses after exhausting its nuclear fuel.
• Types of Black Holes:
  • Stellar Black Holes: Formed from the remnants of dead stars.
  • Supermassive Black Holes: Located at the centers of galaxies.
  • Intermediate or Primordial Black Holes: Smaller types that may have formed in the early universe.
• Black Hole Mergers: Occur when two black holes orbit each other, gradually losing energy and spiraling inward until they collide, creating a larger black hole.
• Hawking's Black Hole Area Theorem: This theorem states that the total surface area of black holes can never decrease; it can only remain the same or increase. This is analogous to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that disorder (entropy) tends to increase.
• The GW250114 event confirmed this theorem by demonstrating an increase in total surface area post-merger, as predicted by Hawking.

This significant observation not only deepens our understanding of black holes but also reinforces fundamental theories in physics, paving the way for further exploration in the realms of astrophysics and cosmology.

GS3/Science and Technology

Neodymium Production Expansion in India

Why in News?

The Indian government is aiming to significantly boost its neodymium production, targeting an increase by nine times to reach 500 tons by the end of Fiscal Year 2027 (FY27).

Key Takeaways

• Neodymium is a crucial rare earth element with significant industrial applications.
• India's strategy reflects a commitment to enhance its production capabilities in the rare earth sector.

Additional Details

• Neodymium: Neodymium is a chemical element represented by the symbol Nd and has the atomic number 60. It belongs to the lanthanides group, which is part of the rare earth elements.
• Discovery: It was discovered in Vienna in 1885 by Karl Auer and is the second most abundant rare earth element after cerium.
• Sources: Neodymium is primarily obtained from minerals such as monazite and bastnasite, with significant deposits located in Brazil, China, USA, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia.
• Properties: It is a ductile and malleable silvery-white metal that oxidizes easily when exposed to air, forming an oxide known as Nd2O3.
• Applications: Neodymium is vital in various industries, particularly in the production of rare-earth magnets, and is essential for technologies in electric vehicles, clean energy, and defense systems.

This expansion in neodymium production is a strategic move for India, aiming to strengthen its position in the global rare earth market and support various high-tech industries.

GS3/Science and Technology

Agentic AI: Tech's Newest Buzzword

Why in News?

Agentic AI has gained significant attention following a report from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Consulting Group, which describes it as a new category of artificial intelligence systems that can independently plan, act, and learn. This has led to a surge in public interest, as evidenced by a dramatic increase in Google searches for the term, contrasting its previous obscurity.

Key Takeaways

• Agentic AI systems execute multistep tasks autonomously, moving beyond simple prompt responses.
• They are capable of breaking down high-level goals into actionable steps and executing them independently.
• Major tech firms are integrating these systems into their operations, indicating a trend toward broader adoption.

Additional Details

• Autonomous Execution: Agentic AI systems can perform complex processes without constant user input.
• Planning Capability: They can decompose overarching goals into manageable steps and execute them autonomously.
• Human-Like Behaviour: These systems communicate in a more natural and expressive manner, although they do not possess true understanding.
• Real-World Applications: Examples include personal finance management, bill dispute resolution, and travel bookings, showcasing their practical utility.
• Industry Optimism: The potential for workflow automation and operational transformation is seen as a significant evolution in AI technology.
• Concerns: There are ongoing discussions regarding the ethical implications and limitations of these systems, particularly in sensitive areas such as finance and personal data security.

In conclusion, Agentic AI signifies a pivotal transition in artificial intelligence from reactive systems to those capable of autonomous operations. Its rapid rise in interest reflects both its potential and the need for responsible development, ethical considerations, and clear guidelines for its use in various sectors.